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THE  PRACTICAL  BOOK 
OF  EARLY  AMERICAN 
ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


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RTS  AND   CRAFTS 

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HILADELPITIA  &  EOXDON 
LIPIM  \  (  i)TT   COAli^AN  V 

1916 


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COPYRIGHT,     I916,    BY   J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 


PUBLISHED  NOVEMBEK,  19x6 


PRINTED    BY    J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 

AT   THE    WASHINGTON    SQDARE    PKESS 

PHILADELPHIA.    U.  S.   A. 


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•  ••     .•••.       •••    ••       •* 

•  •••*••       •    ••••••• 


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FOREWORD 

THE  aim  of  this  book  is  to  present  a  thorough- 
going, informative,  and  practical  guide  to  the 
Arts  and  Crafts  of  our  forefathers  for  the 
)  use  of  the  collector  and  general  reader.  Its  timeliness 
^  will  be  evident,  for  the  present  still  offers  opportunities 
)  of  securing  desirable  specimens  which  the  increasing 
^  number  of  collectors  will  soon  render  difficult  to  come  by. 
')  Private  collectors,  artists,  archaeologists,  historians, 
^  museums  and  those  reviving  our  old  Arts  and  Crafts 
f  are  all,  from  their  individual  points  of  view,  interested 
jL  in  the  subject — and  justly  so  when  we  remember  the 
^"^  wide  and  diversified  range  of  early  American  work- 
j      manship. 

J  The  period  covered  goes  back  to  the  beginnings  of 

J  permanent  European  colonisation  on  the  continent  of 
North  America  on  the  one  hand  and,  on  the  other, 
includes  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  centuiy.  At- 
tention is  directed  to  what  things  are  to  be  found  and, 
in  many  cases,  where  they  are  likely  to  be  found.  It 
will  thus  appear  how  rich  and  brOad  a  field  lies  open 
to  the  enthusiast,  a  field  in  some  directions  almost 
untouched. 

The  general  reader  will  find  the  record  of  early 
American  achievement  in  the  decorative  arts  so  inti- 
mately interwoven,  from  the  outset,  with  the  stoiy  of 
the  nation's  social  and  economic  growth  that  it  may  not 
be  disregarded  if  any  value  be  attached  to  an  intelligent 
and  comprehensive  knowledge  of  American  history. 


ii  FOREWORD 

Those  who  seek  to  revive  the  old  fireside  crafts  and 
decorative  household  arts — some  of  them  have  already 
been  and  others  are  being  successfully  revived  in  both 
their  industrial  and  artistic  phases — will  find  the  follow- 
ing pages  pregnant  with  suggestion. 

This  volume  is  the  result  of  years  of  first-hand  inves- 
tigation and  has  grown  out  of  small  beginnings  in  the 
form  of  articles  that  appeared  in  the  pages  of  Arts  and 
Decoration  and  American  Homes  and  Gardens  (the  lat- 
ter now  incorporated  with  House  and  Garden)  and  the 
authors  here  thank  the  publishers  of  those  magazines 
for  their  courteous  permission  to  republish  the  illustra- 
tions and  such  portions  of  the  text  as  seemed  desirable. 
So  far  as  they  are  aware,  the  authors  were  the  first  to 
devote  any  systematic  consideration  in  periodical  form 
to  most  of  the  subjects  herein  treated,  emphasising  the 
elements  of  craftsmanship  and  historical  sigTdficance. 
The  publication  of  articles  in  the  magazines  above  men- 
tioned extends  back  over  a  number  of  years.  Owing 
to  the  wide  interest  evinced  by  numerous  letters  of 
enquiry,  relative  to  the  contents  of  these  articles,  from 
all  parts  of  the  country,  it  seemed  advisable  to  present 
this  miscellaneous  subject-matter  in  peimanent  and 
more  exhaustive  form. 

The  authors  desire  to  express  their  cordial  appre- 
ciation of  the  assistance  and  co-operation  of  the  follow- 
ing: The  Honourable  A.  T.  Clearwater;  E.  T.  Haines 
Halsey,  Esq. ;  the  officials  and  staff  of  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  for  unfailing  courtesy  and  helpfulness,  espe- 
cially Mr.  Kent,  Mr.  d'Hervilly,  Miss  Eobinson  and  Mr. 
Plimpton;  Dr.  Edwin  AtLee  Barber  and  the  staff  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art; 
Miss  Florence  V.  Paull  of  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine 


FOREWORD  iii 

Arts ;  the  Librarian  and  staff  of  the  Library  Company 
of  Philadelphia ;  the  Librarian  and  staff  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Historical  Society ;  the  Free  Library  of  Philadel- 
phia ;  the  Library  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania ;  the 
Eector  and  Vestry  of  Christ  Church,  Philadelphia;  the 
Eector  and  Vestry  of  St.  Peter's  Church,  Philadelphia; 
the  Essex  Institute  of  Salem,  Massachusetts;  Miss 
Anne  S.  Van  Cortlandt ;  Henry  Chapman  Mercer,  Esq. ; 
Dr.  Frederick  Tuckerman ;  James  M.  To^Misend,  Esq. ; 
Charles  Brendon,  Esq. ;  John  C.  Nippes,  Esq. ;  James 
de  Wolfe  Cookman,  Esq.;  Alfred  C.  Prime,  Esq.; 
AYilfred  Jordan,  Esq.,  Curator  of  the  State  House, 
Philadelphia;  Mr.  Richard  W.  Lehne;  Mr.  James  Cur- 
ran;  and,  finally,  all  those  who  have  so  faithfully 
assisted  in  the  preparation  of  a  volume  requiring  un- 
usual exactitude  of  mechanical  details. 

Harold  Donaldson  Eberlein 
Abbot  McClure 
Philadelphia, 
November,  1916 


CONTENTS 

PAOE 

I.    Introductory 11 

II.    Early  Mexican  Matolica  and  Glass  ...  19 

III.  Early  American  Glass 28 

IV.  Decorative    Metal- Work:    Iron,   Brass, 

Copper,  Lead,  and  Tin 55 

V.    Early    American    Decorative   Needle- 
craft  78  - 

VI.     Silver;  Domestic  and  Ecclesiastical....   102 

VII.     Early  Pewter 197 

VIII.     Early  American  Slip-decorated  Pottery  217 
IX.     Decorative  Painting  on  Household  Gear  239 
X.     Early  Portraiture  and  Allegorical 

Painting  in  the  Colonies 260 

XI.     Early  American  Decorative  Weaving  . . .  272   , 

XII.  The  Art  of  "Fractur"  or  Pen-and-Brush 

Illumination 286 

XIII.  Handblock  Printing  on  Fabrics  and  Paper  298" 

XIV.  Early  American  Wood  and  Stone  Carv- 

ing    303 

XV.    Early  American  Lace 321 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Smyth  Hatchment,  Christ  Church,  Philadelphia 

Colour  Plate Frontispiece 

DOUBLETONES 

Mexican  Maiolica  Lavabo  and  Flower  Jars 20 

Mexican  Maiohca  Cistern  and  Vase 21 

Mexican  Maiohca  Jar  and  Bason 24 

Mexican  Maiohca  Salt,  AlbareUi  and  Tiles 25 

Seventeenth  Century  Beads;  Nineteenth  Century  Cup  Plates 32 

Group  of  Stiegel  Glass;   Wistar  Glass  Vase  and  Pitcher 33 

Early  Milk  Bowls  and  Tumblers;  Bottle  Mould  and  Bottle 42 

Group  of  Stiegel  Glass;  Stiegel  Tiunblers,  Moulded  Bottle 43 

Stiegel  Enamelled  and  Etched  Snuff  Bottle,  Mugs  and  Tumbler 50 

Moulded  Bottles,  Nineteenth  Century 51 

Cast  and  Wrought  Iron  Step  Rails 56 

Andirons,  Tongs  and  Wrought  Balcony  Rail 57 

Eighteenth  Century  Iron  Hinges 62 

Eighteenth  Century  Stove  Plates:  Cain  and  Abel;  John  Potts 63 

Eighteenth  Century  Stove  Plates:  Joseph;  Wedding  Scene 66 

Eighteenth  Century  Stove  Plates :  Tuhp  Motif;  Fohage  and  Flowers  67 

Candlesticks,  Footwarmer  and  Knockers 76 

Sampler;  Embroidered  Picture 82 

Pennsylvania  German  Towel  Covers 83 

Embroidered  Pictures:  Long  Island;  Pennsylvania 88 

Night-cap  Holder;  Pocket-Book,  Book  Cover  and  Reticule;  TMiite 

Altar  Frontal,  St.  Peter's  Church,  Philadelphia 89  ' 

Quilted  and  Patchwork  Bedspread;  Pieced  Bedspread 92 

Quilted  and  Patchwork  Bedspreads 93 

Quilted  Crib  Valance;  Tufted  Bedspread 9S 

Five  Plates  of  Chronological  Key  Illustrations  for  Silver  Contours  . .  102 

Early  New  York  Beaker;  Small  Oval  Cup  or  Bowl 110 

Forks;  Four  Mugs Ill 

Three^Teapots;  Chocolate  Pot;  Two  Coffee  Pots ,118 

Sugar  Scissors;  Porringers;  Candlestick 119 

Early  Bowls;  Hancock  Plate 124 

Patch  Boxes;  Revere  Teapot     125 

Heraldic  Engraving;  Cup  or  Beaker 142 

Chronological  Sequence  of  Cream  Pitchers 143 

Ghiselin  Plate;  State  House   Inkstand;   Sugar  Bowl;  Syphon  and 

Saucepan 1 54 

Tankard  by  Cony;  Hamilton  Tankard 155 

3 


4  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Flagon  by  Morse;  Tankard  by  Revere 166 

Baptismal  Bowl  and  Flagon,  by  SjTig;  Plate  and  Beaker,  by  Gliiselin    167 

Pewter  Coffee  Pot;  Pewter  Sugar  Bowl  and  Cream  Pitcher 198 

Pewter  Teapot;  Pewi;er  Platter  and  Bason 199 

Slip  Ware  Plateand  Meat  Dish,  Sgraffito 218 

Slip  Ware  Dishes,  Sgraffito  and  SHp-Traced 219 

Moulded  ReUef  Octagonal  Dish;  Pie  Plates  and  Mould 230 

Painted  Kas;  Hadley  Chest 242 

Painted  Iron  Strong  Box  of  Robert  Morris 243 

Painted  Fire  Bucket  and  Fire  Hat;  Painted  Bride  Box 250 

Painted  Tray;  Painted  Coffee  Pots 251 

Painted  Clock  Face;  Banjo  Clock;  Painted  Mirror  Head 256 

Painted  Chest 257 

Portrait  of  Kelpius;  Painted  Fireboard 262 

Portraits  at  Manor  House,  Croton-on-Hudson 263 

"Draft"  Book  of  John  Landes;  Blue  and  White  Coverlets 272 

Blue  and  White  Coverlets;  Eighteenth  Century 273 

Blue  and  White  Coverlets;  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries  . .  .   280 
Linen  vnth.  Woven  Pattern ;  Handwoven  Woollen  Blanket  and  Linen 

Woven  in  Blue  and  White  Chequers 281 

Hand  Made  Colonial  Rugs 284 

Ephrata  Fraciur  Paintings:  Flowers 286 

Ephrata  Fractur  Paintings:  Decorative;  Music 287 

Secular  Fractur  Paintings 292 

Taufschein;  Fractur  Painting  by  EngUsh  Colonists 293 

Fractur  Birth  Record,  by  Enghsh  Colonists 296 

Hand  Printed  Linens;  Paper  Covered  Boxes 300 

Block  Printed  Wall  Paper  Borders 301 

Carved  Cherubs,  Gloria  Dei,  Philadelphia;  Overdoor    Carving,  State 

House,  Philadelphia 304 

Statue  of  Washington  by  Rush 305 

Portrait  Bust  of  Washington  by  Mclntire;  Carving  from  Bolton  Farm, 

.    Bucks;  Butter  Mould 310 

Butter  Moulds 311 

Carved  Instrument  Press;  Philadelphia  Library 314 

Overdoor  Carving,  Mulberry  Castle;  Stone  Car\'ing  by  John  Bartram  318 

Eighteenth  Century  Carved  Tombstones 319 

Lace  "Prickings";  Lace  Pillow 322 

Ipswich  Bobbin  and  Darned  Net  Lace 323 

ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT 

Mexican  MaioUca  Jar  and  Albarello 23 

Mexican  Polychrome  Tile 25 

Mexican  Maiohca  Bowl 26 


ILLUSTRATIONS  5 

Mexican  Maiolica  Inkstand  and  Albarello 27 

Old  American  Bottles 34 

Cologne  Bottle;  Double  Bottle;  Salt  Cellar 47 

Glass  Milk  Bowl;  Snuff  Bottle 52 

Wrought  Iron  Lock;  Eighteenth  Century 57 

Weather-vane,  1699 60 

Decorated  Wafer  Irons 61 

Wrought  Iron  Lanthorn;  Philadelphia  Library 63 

Warming  Pan  with  Chased  Copper   Lid 71 

Leaden  Rain-water  Head 72 

Leaden  Insurance  Badges 73 

Tin  Sconces 74 

Tin  Lanthorn;  Punch  work  Decoration 75 

Silver  Tablespoons  and  Teaspoons 134 

Silver   Porringer 137 

Silver  Brasier  or  Chafing  Dish 141 

Silver  Saucepan 141 

Silver  Can  or  Cup  with  Handle 144 

Silver  Cream  Pitchers 153 

Silver  Strainer 157 

Strap  work,  Decorative  Detail;  Silver 168 

Strap  work,  Fruit  and  Figure  Detail;  Silver 168 

Makers'  Devices  for  Enclosing  Names  on  Silver  Plate 170 

Chart  of  Part  Terms;  Silver 171 

Pewter  Tankard  and  Mug 203 

Pewter  Coffee  Pot  and  Teapot 204 

Pewter  Fluid  Lamp  and  Measure 206 

Pewter  Fluid  Lamps 207 

Pewter  Sugar  Bowl,  "Wriggled"  Ornament 212 

Slip  Ware  Potter's  Implements 222 

Green  Glaze  Jar 226 

Sgraffito  Mug;  SUp  Decorated  Tobacco  Jar 227 

Slip  Decorated  and  Sgraffito  Dishes 232 

Shp  Decorated  Deep  Dishes 234 

Painted  Tin  Box 258 

Coverlet  "Draft" 274 

Coverlet  "Draft" 276 

Bearwood  Hand  Block 300 

Small  Hand  Block 301 

Carved  Wooden  Pie  Cutter 305 

Details  of  Carving  from  Penn  Cupboard 306 

Detail  of  Wooden  Carving,  Pilaster  Capital 307 

Detail  of  Motif  from  Hadley  Chest 308 


CHRONOLOGICAL  KEY  OF  SILVER 

The  illustrations  of  the  Chronological  Key  of  Silver  Contours  appear  by  Courtesy  of  the 
following: 

First  Chronological  Division: 

1-7.  Honourable  A.  T.  Clearwater. 

8.  J.  deWolfe  Cookman,  Esqr. 

9.  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts 

Second  Chronological  Division: 

1-15.  Honourable  A.  T.  Clearwater. 

Third  Chronological  Division: 

1-16.  Honourable  A.  T.  Clearwater. 

Fourth  Chronological  Division: 

1-4;  10-15.  Honourable  A.  T.  Clearwater. 

5  and  6.  In  possession  of  H.  D.  Eberlein,  Esqr. 


7  and  8. 
9. 


Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 
C.  Hartman  Kuhn  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School 
of  Industrial  Art. 


CriRONOLOGICAL    SEQUENCES: 

1-21.  Honourable  A.  T.  Clearwater. 


The  Pieces  shown  in  the  Chronological  Key  of  Silver  are  by  the  following  makers: 


E  W  (in  rectangle) 

I  C  (crowned,  in  shaped  shield,  coney  below) 

GOB  (monogram  in  trefoil) 
Mark  as  above 
I  R 

V.  p.   173 


I.  W  (in  rectangle) 

D.  H  (in  rectangle) 

Henchman  (in  rectangle) 

REVERE  (in  rectangle) 

J.  Clarke  (script,  in  long  oval) 

D.  R  (in  shaped  oval) 

I.  Edwards  (italics,  in  rectangle) 

N  R-V  (monogram,  in  oval) 

D  T  (in  rectangle) 

B.  Burt  (italics,  in  rectangle) 

Lion  passant  to  right.     E.  D  (in  rectangle) 

I.D.  (in  oval) 

M.  H.  (in  rectangle) 


I.  L  (in  rectangle) 

Burger  (script,  in  shaped  rectangle) 

Mark  as  before 

J  &  M  (script,  in  rectangle) 

Mark  as  before 

R.  C.  (script,  in  shaped  oval) 

Mark  as  before 

{A.  Underbill  (in  rectangle) 
A.  U.  (in  oval) 


First  Chronological  Division: 

1  and  2. 

Edward  Winslow 

3. 

John  Cony 

4. 

Unmarked 

5. 

Garrett  Onclebagh 

6. 

John  Cony 

7. 

Unknown 

8. 

Unmarked 

9. 

Jeremiah  Dummer 

Second  Chronological  Division 

1. 

Unknown 

2. 

Daniel  Henchman 

3  and  4. 

Daniel  Henchman 

5. 

Paul  Revere 

6. 

J.  Clarke 

7. 

Unknown 

8. 

Joseph  Edwards 

9. 

Nicholas  Roosevelt 

10. 

David  Tyler 

11. 

Unmarked 

12. 

Benjamin  Burt 

13. 

E.  Da\-is  (?) 

14. 

John  Dixwell 

15. 

Margueriette  Hastier 

Third  Chro 

iNOLOGiCAL  Division: 

1  and  2. 

Unknown 

3  and  4. 

John  Burger 

5. 

Paul  Revere 

6. 

Unknown 

7  and  8. 

Paul  Revere 

9. 

Unknown 

10 

Paul  Revere 

.      11. 

Andrew  Underbill 

CHRONOLOGICAL  KEY  OF  SILVER 


12.  Jacob  G.  Lansing 

13.  Unknown 

14.  Isaac  Hutton 

15.  Daniel  van  Voorhis 

16.  Paul  Revere 
Fourth  Chronological  Division: 


1  and  2. 

3  and  4. 

5  and  6. 

7  and  8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 


W.  Roe 
T.  Keeler 
P.  Gordon 
Nicholas  Coleman 


Unknown 
Unknown 
Lewis  &  Smith 
G.  Forbes 
Fellows 
Dunn 


Chron'olooical  Sequences: 

1.  Benjamin  Wynkoop 

2.  Hendrik  Boelen 

3.  John  Dixwell 

4.  Margueriette  Hastier 

5.  Samuel  Drowne 

6.  Joseph  Moulton  II. 

7.  Samuel  Minott 

John  Cony 
Joseph  Edwards 
Daniel  van  Voorhia 
G.  Forbes 
(7) 


8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13 and  14.  Unmarked 

15.  Paul  Revere 

16.  Daniel  van  Voorhie 

17.  Benjamin  Burt 

18.  E.  Davis  (?^ 

19.  Joseph  Moulton  II 

20.  Unknown 

21.  Lewis  &  Smith 


I.  g  L  (in  oval) 

S.  R.  (in  rectangle) 
/HUTTON  (in  rectangle) 
I  ALBANY  (in  rectangle) 

D.  V.  VOORHIS    (in    rectangle,    twice, 
eagle  displayed  in  lozenge,  between) 

No  mark 


with 


W.  ROE  (in  rectangle) 

T.  KEELER  (in  rectangle) 

P.  GORDON  (in  rectangle) 

Leopard's  head  in  oval,  I.  T.  (in  rectangle) 

Anchor,  L.  H.  M  (in  rectangle) 

Same,  in  shaped  rectangle 

G.  FORBES  (in  rectangle) 

FELLOWS  (in  rectangle) 

DUNN  (in  rectangle) 


BWK  (in  heart) 

HB  (in  oval) 

Mark  as  before 

Mark  as  before 

SxD  (in  rectangle) 

MOULTON  (in  rectangle) 
fM  (script,  in  rectangle) 
I  Minott  (script,  in  rectangle) 

Mark  as  before 

Mark  as  before 

Mark  as  before 

Mark  as  before 


L'nmarked 
Mark  as  before 
Mark  as  before 
Mark  as  before 
Mark  as  before 
Mark  as  before 
Mark  as  before 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Maiolica  of  Mexico;  Edwin  AtLee  Barber.  Printed  for  the  Pennsylvania 
Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

Stiegel  Glass;  Frederick  WiUiam  Hunter.    Privately  PubU.shed. 

Tulipware  of  the  Pennsylvania  German  Potters;  Edwin  AtLee  Barber. 
Printed  for  the  Pennsylvania  Maseum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

Catalogue  of  an  Exhibition  of  Silver,  Used  in  New  York,  New  Jersey  and 
the  South  with  a  Note  on  Early  New  York  Silversmiths  by  R.  T. 
Haines  Halsey.    PubUshed  by  MetropoUtan  Museum  of  Art,  1911. 

American  Silver;  The  Work  of  17th  and  ISth  Century  Silversmiths.  Ex- 
hibited at  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  1906.  Introduction  by 
R.  T.  Haines  Halsey;  Technical  Description  by  J.  H.  Buck.  Pub- 
lished by  Boston  Maseum  of  Fine  Arts,  1906. 

Old  Silver  Plate;  J.  H.  Buck.    PubUshed  by  Gorham  Co. 

American  Church  Silver  of  the  17th  and  18th  Centuries.  Exhibited  at 
the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  1911.  Introduction  by  George 
Munson  Curtis.    Pubhshed  by  Boston  INIuseum  of  Fine  Arts,  1911. 

Hudson-Fulton  Catalogue;  Silver  Section.  Pubhshed  by  the  Metropohtan 
Museum  of  Art,  1909. 

The  Old  Silver  of  American  Churches;  E.  Alfred  Jones. 

Old  Pewter;  Malcohn  Bell. 

Pewter  and  the  Amateur  Collector;  Edward  J.  Gale  (exceptionally  good 
for  American  Pewter). 

Pewter  Plate;  an  Historical  and  Descri{)tive  Handbook;  H.  J.  L.  J.  Massd. 

Samplers  and  Tapestry  Embroidery;  Marcus  B.  Huish. 

Quilts,  Their  Story  and  How  to  Make  Them;  Marie  D.  Webster. 

Hand  Woven  Coverlets;  EUza  Calvert  Hall. 

The  Bible  in  Iron ;  Henry  Chapman  IVIercer. 

The  Survival  of  the  Mediaeval  Art  of  Illuminative  Writing  among  Penn- 
sylvania Germans;  Henry  Chapman  Mercer. 

Early  American  Craftsmen;  Walter  A.  Dyer. 

Colonial  Furniture  in  America;  Luke  Vincent  Lockwood. 

The  Practical  Book  of  Period  Furniture;  Eberlein  and  McClure. 

The  .Ajchitecture  of  Colonial  .America;  H.  D.  Eberlein. 

Colonial  Homes  of  Philadelphia  and  Its  Neighbourhood;  Eberlein  and 
Lippincott. 

Besides  these.  Sundry  Bulletins  Pubhshed  by  the  Metropolitan  Museum, 
the  Boston  Miaseum  and  the  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of 
Industrial  Art. 


THE  PRACTICAL  BOOK  OF  EARLY 
AMERICAN   ARTS   AND   CRAFTS 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTORY 

PRODUCTS  of  the  decorative  arts  afford  the  visi- 
ble evidence  of  man's  progress  in  civilisation. 
This  is  true  of  the  world's  history  considered  as 
a  whole.  It  is  equally  true  of  the  history  of  each  indi- 
vidual people.  It  is  essentially  true  of  our  own  history 
in  both  its  Colonial  and  national  j)hases.  If  we  would 
fully  know  what  manner  of  men  and  women  laid  the 
foundations  of  our  country  and  builded  thereon  the 
first  courses  of  a  structure  now  grown  to  imposing  size, 
if  we  would  have  a  true  and  lively  picture  of  their  daily 
circumstances,  we  must  know  somewhat  of  the  arts 
they  practised,  arts  which,  simple  and  homely  as  some 
of  them  were,  none  the  less  played  a  significant  part  in 
the  lives  of  our  forebears. 

In  our  school  and  college  days  the  political  and 
military  aspects  of  our  Colonial  past  were  chiefly  im- 
pressed upon  us  and  their  dramatic  appeal  to  the 
imagination  was  often  emphasised  at  the  expense  of  the 
less  obviously  insistent  factors  of  social  existence.  In 
our  subsequent  study,  the  homely,  quiet  forces  have  all 
too  often  been  overshadowed  and  put  in  abeyance  by 
national  affairs  that  loomed  larger  upon  our  mental 
horizon  than  did  the  products  of  unobtrusive  craftsman- 
ship. In  consequence,  comparatively  little  attention 
has  been  paid  the  less  conspicuous  but  nevertheless 

11 


12  EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

higlily  important  manifestations  of  a  deeply  implanted 
instinct,  common  to  the  human  race  in  all  ages  and  in 
every  land,  to  contrive  adornment  and  add  the  perennial 
interest  of  colour  and  design  to  everyday  surroundings. 
Indeed,  we  have  sometimes  been  in  ' '  danger  of  wholly 
forgetting  much  that  was  worthy  and  memorable  in 
the  lives  of  our  forefathers."  Furthermore,  we  have 
been  altogether  too  ready,  in  many  instances,  to  attrib- 
ute specimens  of  worthy  craftsmanship  to  an  imported 
origin  without  sufficient  warrant  for  the  assumption. 
This  has  been  notably  the  case  with  regard  to  silver,  for 
how  many  know  that  there  were  more  than  four  hundred 
silversmiths  working  in  the  American  Colonies  ?  Thus, 
through  our  careless  ignorance,  has  the  American 
craftsman  of  past  generations  often  been  robbed  of  the 
recognition  that  is  in  justice  due  him. 

From  the  rude  bone  scratchings  wrought  by  the 
primeval  cave-dwellers  to  the  delicately  finished  lacquer 
or  the  gracefully  moulded  and  chastely  decorated  porce- 
lains made  in  China  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries,  or  the  wondrous  fabrics  and  beautiful  furni- 
ture produced  by  the  artisans  and  craftsmen  of  Europe 
at  the  same  epoch,  the  achievements  in  the  several 
decorative  arts  furnish  us  with  an  eloquent  commentary 
upon  the  men  and  manners  of  each  succeeding  genera- 
tion, and  give  us  an  insight  into  their  social  condition 
and  ideals  more  intimate  than  we  can  get  in  any  other 
way.  If  we  remember  Mr.  Lethaby's  dictum  that  ''art 
is  the  well  doing  of  what  needs  doing,"  we  shall  better 
understand  and  more  truly  appreciate  the  spirit  that 
actuated  and  inspired  the  artificers  of  the  past  who  put 
into  so  much  of  their  handiwork  a  vital  quality  and 
livening  touch  of  personality  that  shame  the  products 


INTRODUCTORY  13 

of  sordid  industrialism  to  which  we  of  to-day  have  be- 
come too  much  accustomed.  If  work  was  primitive,  and 
it  often  was,  it  was,  however,  honest  and  possessed  of 
strong  individuality,  and  generally  showed  a  striving  to 
realise,  albeit  blindly  and  imperfectly  at  times,  the  in- 
herently sound  principle  of  ubiquitous  grace,  so  dear  to 
and  so  consistently  practised  by  the  Greeks,  who  deemed 
the  meanest  pots  and  pans  not  unworthy  of  comely 
shape  and  fitting  ornament.  Many  of  the  articles  were 
the  product  of  Jiome  manufacture,  and  so  it  would  not  be 
fair  to  contrast  them  with  the  work  of  skilled  artisans. 
And  yet,  if  we  do  contrast  them  with  much  of  the 
cheaper  present-day  merchandise  it  would  often  be  to 
the  advantage  of  the  home-made ;  for,  while  frankly  am- 
ateurish and  primitive,  few  examples  of  this  home-made 
work  were  downright  ugly,  as  are  the  hideous  carpets, 
pieces  of  furniture,  and  the  like,  sold  by  some  of  the 
cheaper  establishments  of  to-day.  Few  things  are  more 
to  be  lamented  than  the  lost  art  of  "making  things" 
formerly  practised  in  families ;  in  this  respect  American 
homes  are  far  below  the  peasant  families  of  Eussia  and 
Scandinavia,  upon  whom  we  look  down  for  their  igno- 
rance, but  who  could,  we  suspect,  teach  us  many  things 
in  the  art  of  living.  If  we  look  for  a  trustworthy  com- 
mentary upon  the  intimate  social  histoiy  of  past  nations 
and  races  in  the  varied  record  of  the  arts  and  crafts  they 
practised  and  are  w^ell  rewarded,  we  may  look,  with 
equal  propriety  and  with  equally  confident  expectation 
of  fruitful  results,  for  an  insight  of  the  greatest  value 
into  the  everyday  social  conditions  of  our  own  land  in 
the  past  from  a  study  of  the  work  achieved  by  early 
American  craftsmanship.  Incidentally,  we  shall  both 
establish  for  ourselves  a  truer  standard  of  "apprecia- 


14  EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

tion  of  our  historic  and  artistic  heritage"  and  create  a 
"more  vivid  and  human  background"  for  the  events  of 
our  national  history.  The  industrial  arts  ' '  touch  life  at 
many  points  and  intimately ;  and  the  students  and  col- 
lectors of  Americana  have  been,  unconsciously  perhaps, 
reconstructing  for  us  a  more  living  picture  of  the  men 
and  manners  of  a  former  time,  and  history  is  made 
thereby  a  more  vital  thing.  The  collector  has  ceased  to 
be  absorbed  entirely  by  the  quest  for  a  bargain  and  has 
become  a  delver  after  human  facts." 

The  story  of  the  pursuit  and  development  of  the 
decorative  arts  in  Colonial  America  is  replete  with 
varied  and,  needless  to  say,  engrossing  interest.  From 
the  beginnings  of  European  colonisation  in  the  new 
lands  of  the  Western  World  to  the  end  of  the  first 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  while  the  afterglow 
of  the  Colonial  period  still  shed  its  waning  light  and  the 
exercise  of  the  decorative  handicrafts  had  not  been 
wholly  blotted  out  by  the  fast  falling  night  of  industrial 
banality  and  machine-made  ornament  of  ugly,  sordid 
character,  we  find  a  wide  diversity  in  the  products  put 
forth  by  the  workers  in  the  decorative  crafts  and  an 
equally  wide  geographical  distribution  of  localities 
where  they  wrought.  From  the  lofty  table  land  of 
Mexico  to  the  forests  of  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia, 
craftsmen  and  craftswomen  plied  their  skill,  partly  in  a 
continuous  commercial  manner,  partly  in  the  occasional 
creation  of  some  homely  embellishment  or  the  adorn- 
ment of  some  object  of  domestic  utility. 

While  several  of  the  arts  considered  in  the  following 
chapters  were  carried  on  almost  every^^here  through- 
out the  Colonies,  others  were  purely  local  in  their 
practice.    Still  others  were  applied  in  sundry  different 


INTRODUCTORY  15 

places  where  conditions  favoured  their  pursuit.  Of  the 
arts  or  crafts  practised  more  or  less  universally 
throughout  the  Colonies  may  be  mentioned,  besides 
the  spinning  and  weaving  of  linen  and  the  making  of 
other  homespun  textiles,  the  weaving  of  woollen  cover- 
lets, now  eagerly  sought  after  in  all  parts  of  the  country 
and  regarded  with  admiration  both  for  their  colour  and 
the  beauty  of  their  pattern ;  the  piecing,  patching  and 
quilting  of  bedspreads;  the  w^orking  of  samplers  and 
the  more  ambitious  embroidering  of  allegorical,  scrip- 
tural or  pastoral  pictures,  both  forms  of  stitchery  held 
in  high  esteem  as  satisfactory  evidences  of  proper  and 
indispensable  feminine  accomplishment ;  the  embroider- 
ing of  wearing  apparel  and  lesser  objects  and,  finally, 
among  the  activities  pursued  by  women,  the  making  of 
dyes  and  the  dyeing  of  the  threads  or  fabrics  to  be  used 
in  the  sorts  of  handiwork  just  enumerated.  These 
activities  did  more  than  satisfy  the  promptings  of  the 
world-old  creative  instinct ;  they  were  a  source  of  com- 
panionship and  a  boon  to  the  woman  who  had  to  endure 
the  inevitable  hours  of  frontier  loneliness.  They  pro- 
vided wholesome  occupation  for  the  brain  as  well  as  for 
the  hands.  If  more  of  these  household  crafts  were 
practised  at  the  present  day,  contributing  their  quota 
of  colour  and  constructive  interest  to  humdrum  and 
pathetically  colourless  lives,  we  should  probably  not 
hear  of  such  appalling  statistics  of  insanity  among  the 
wives  and  daughters  of  farmers.  Many  a  city  woman, 
too,  might  profitably  take  pattern  from  her  grand- 
mother's manual  skill  and  industry  in  womanly  crafts. 
"While  not  a  few  are  busied  in  a  manner  beyond  criti- 
cism, there  are,  nevertheless,  far  too  many  whose  pre- 
occupation with  bridge,  and  kindred  devices  for  killing 


16  EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

time,  could  well  give  place  to  employments  better  cal- 
culated to  increase  feminine  capability,  charm  and 
dignity. 

Among  the  decorative  crafts  practised  by  men  in 
practically  all  the  Colonies,  one  naturally  expects  to 
find  metal  work  and  carving  in  wood  and  stone.  The 
metal  work  includes  the  simpler  decorative  forms  for 
domestic  or  architectural  use  in  iron,  copper,  brass, 
lead  and  tin.  Nor  must  we  forget  furniture  making  and 
decorative  painting  on  furniture,  glass,  tin,  and  other 
substances — both  arts  pursued  in  distinctively  local 
forms,  at  one  time  or  another,  along  the  whole  Atlantic 
seaboard. 

The  arts  that  were  purely  local  began,  in  point  of 
time,  with  the  making  of  glass  and  maiolica  at  Puebla 
in  Mexico  towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  next  essay  at  making  glass  on  the  continent  of 
North  America  took  place  at  Jamestown  shortly  after 
the  arrival  of  the  colonists.  Almost  wholly  local,  too, 
were  the  later  attempts  at  making  glass  until  nearly  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  As  will  be  seen  in  the 
chapter  devoted  to-  early  American  glass,  whether  the 
establishment  of  eighteenth  century  glass  houses  was 
undertaken  by  Caspar  Wistar,  the  picturesque  Baron 
Stiegel  or  their  energetic  New  England  contemporaries, 
the  manufacture  of  this  brittle  commodity  was  virtually 
confined  to  Pennsylvania,  South  Jersey  and  Eastern 
Massachusetts  until  the  time  of  the  Revolutionary  War, 
or  slightly  later.  The  making  of  slip-  decorated  pottery 
was  confined  altogether  to  Pennsylvania  with  the  ex- 
ception of  sporadic  attempts  at  a  similar  process  in 
Connecticut  and  in  West  Virginia.  The  art  of  "frac- 
tur"  painting  also  was  essentially  local  and  was  prac- 


INTRODUCTORY  17 

tised  only  among  the  German  population  in  certain 
counties  in  Pennsylvania. 

The  making  of  silverware,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
practised  wherever  conditions  were  favourable  to  the 
craft  of  the  silversmith,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  cities  and 
large  towns  or  wherever  there  was  a  recognised  centre 
of  wealth.  Hence  Boston,  Philadelphia,  New  York, 
Baltimore,  Eiclunond,  Charleston,  Newport,  Newbury- 
port,  Albany  and  various  other  places  could  boast  the 
production  of  silverware  of  the  most  admirable  work- 
manship at  a  very  early  date.  Pewter  was  as  widely 
made,  and  in  much  larger  quantities,  and  the  pewterers, 
not  content  with  merely  copying  British  models,  orig- 
inated several  interesting  local  forms  which  are  noted 
in  their  proper  place.  Allegorical  painting,  sign  paint- 
ing and  very  early  portraiture,  which  is  scarcely  to  be 
judged  by  the  same  standards  as  we  are  accustomed  to 
apply  under  ordinary  circumstances,  were,  like  silver- 
smithing,  practised  chiefly  in  the  cities  or  in  centres  of 
local  wealth. 

Without  entering  into  a  full  catalogue  of  all  the 
Colonial  craft  activities,  it  is  plain  to  be  seen  that  every 
part  of  our  country  settled  before  the  third  decade  of 
the  nineteenth  centurv  has  some  share  in  early  craft 
development,  some  point  of  interest,  some  cause  for 
proper  local  pride.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that,  in  most 
cases,  early  American  art  was  tinily  folk  art.  That  is, 
it  was  of  and  by  the  people.  Therefore  it  was  vital. 
The  truest  and  most  vigorous  art  has  generally  come 
from  the  people  upivard  and  not  from  one  or  two  in- 
dividuals doivntvard.  Great  masters  in  craftsmanship 
have  been  those  that  did  the  folk  things  pre-eminently 
better  than  their  fellows.  The  vitality  and  vigour  of 
2 


18  EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

early  American  decorative  craftsmanship  are  two  of 
its  greatest  charms  and  it  is  gratifying  to  note  that 
several  traditional  forms  of  craft  expression  have  per- 
sisted to  our  own  day  in  the  Southern  mountains  while 
other  forms  are  being  revived  in  many  different  places 
and  under  widely  different  auspices.  The  industries  of 
the  Southern  mountaineers  have  been  placed  on  a  basis 
pecuniarily  remunerative  to  the  workers,  and  their 
wares  are  marketed  in  the  cities  of  the  North  by  philan- 
thropists whose  laudable  philanthropy  consists  largely 
in  helping  others  to  help  themselves.  The  excellent  and 
growing  collections  of  Americana  in  our  museums  are 
doing  much  to  stimulate  interest  in  the  old  and  to  en- 
courage the  effort  at  revivals.  If  the  following  chapters 
shall  contribute  to  an  increased  and  patriotic  apprecia- 
tion of  the  decorative  craftsmanship  of  our  forefathers 
or  yield  encouragement  to  the  more  vigorously  con- 
structive task  of  reviving  for  our  own  use  what  was 
best  in  the  practice  of  bygone  generations,  the  authors 
will  feel  the  most  sincere  gratification. 


CHAPTER  II 

EARLY  MEXICAN  MAJOLICA  AND  GLASS 

MEXICO  is  a  land  of  surprises.  This  is  true,  at 
least  so  far  as  most  of  us  in  America  are  con- 
cerned. Although  Mexico  is  our  next  neigh- 
bour, we  really  know  but  little  of  the  country  or  her 
history  as  compared  with  the  knowledge  of  European 
countries  deemed  essential  for  every  educated  person. 
The  majority  of  people,  and  well-informed  people  at 
that,  do  not  know  that  the  making  of  maiolica  was  a 
craft,  important  both  artistically  and  commercially,  as 
early  as  the  last  quarter  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
that  it  so  continued  until  near  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth, when  it  fell  into  a  debased  condition,  from  which 
in  recent  years  attempts  have  been  made,  an<l  not 
altogether  without  success,  to  restore  it  to  its  former 
dignified  estate. 

There  was  a  tradition  that  pottery  like  the  Spanish 
Talavera  earthenware  had  anciently  been  made  some- 
where in  Mexico,  but  nothing  was  surely  kno^^^l  about  it 
until,  within  veiy  recent  years,  the  thorough  investiga- 
tions of  Dr.  E.  A.  Barber,  of  the  Pennsylvania  Museum 
and  School  of  Industrial  Art,  disclosed  the  fact  that  tin- 
enamelled  pottery  was  being  produced  soon  after  the 
Conquest.  This  ware  students  of  ceramics  had  previ- 
ously either  ignored  or  attributed  to  a  Spanish  origin. 
We  know,  however,  that  from  the  sixteenth  century  on- 
ward the  fabrication  of  this  ware  has  gone  on  without 
interruption,  and  that  it  dropped  into  obscurity  only  in 
the  nineteenth  century,  when  its  character  declined. 

19 


20  EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFT 

Puebla,  or  Puebla  de  los  Angeles,  to  give  the  town 
its  full  name,  a  city  founded  by  the  Spanish  conquerors 
in  1531,  one  hundred  and  fifteen  miles  south-east  of  the 
city  of  Mexico,  at  the  foot  of  Popocatepetl  and  Ixtac- 
cihuatl,  was  the  first  seat  of  various  manufactures  intro- 
duced into  the  New  World  by  European  craftsmen,  and 
here,  among  other  enterprises,  glass  factories  and  pot- 
teries were  established.  For  nearly  three  centuries 
Puebla  was  the  only  place  where  maiolica  was  made  in 
the  western  hemisphere.  The  art  of  glazing,  brought 
hither  by  Spanish  maiolists — the  Aztecs  had  made  only 
nnglazed  pottery — prospered,  and  there  is  little  doubt 
that  by  1575  or  1580  Mexican-made  tiles  of  excellent 
quality  were  produced  in  sufficient  quantity  to  render 
the  new  land  almost  independent  of  Spanish  importa- 
tions. Tiles  were  not  the  only  objects  made,  for  the 
craftsmen  turned  out  all  the  various  articles  usually 
fashioned  by  potters. 

By  1653  the  industry  had  assumed  sufficient  impor- 
tance in  Puebla  to  warrant  the  incorporation  of  a  pot- 
ters'  guild  with  stringent  regulations  and  penalties 
attached  for  their  infraction.  The  manufacture  and 
sale  of  pottery  were  regulated  by  law,  and  no  one  might 
practise  the  trade  of  a  potter  without  examination  by 
the  inspectors  of  the  guild.  A  certain  standard  of 
quality  in  the  wares  was  rigorously  enjoined  and 
jealously  guarded. 

Pkocesses.  From  the  rules  of  the  guild  we  learn 
that  there  were  three  grades  of  pottery:  the  fine,  the 
common,  and  the  yellow.  The  difference  lay  in  the 
workmanship  and  the  glaze  employed.  Two  clays  were 
used,  white  and  red,  being  combined  in  equal  parts.  The 
variations  in  colour  to  be  found  in  the  body  in  different 


MEXICAN  MAIOLICA  LAVABO:    DECORATIONS  IN  BLUE  OUTLINED 

WITH   BLACK,    HLSPANO-MORESQUE   PHASE,  c.  1650 

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MEXICAN    MAIOLICA    HAUHEL-SHAPED   FLOWER  JARS.      BLUE   DECORATIi>\. 

CHINESE   INFLUENCE,  c.    17.50 
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EARLY  MEXICAN  MAIOLICA  AND  GLASS       21 

pieces  are  due  to  the  amount  of  firing  and  not  to  the 
varying  proportions  of  the  clay  ingredients.  After  the 
various  pieces  were  shaped  and  allowed  to  dry  they 
were  put  in  the  first  kihi.  AVhen  taken  out  of  the  kiln 
they  were  dipped  in  a  liquid  ghize  or  enamel  and  then 
allowed  to  dry.  The  decorations  were  next  painted  on 
in  vitrifiable  colours  made  from  metallic  oxides,  and  the 
pieces  were  then  subjected  to  a  second  firing,  during 
which  the  colours  became  incorporated  with  the  glaze 
and  took  on  the  appearance  of  underglaze  painting. 
The  glaze  for  the  finer  ware  was  made  of  twenty-five 
parts  of  lead  to  six  of  tin ;  the  glaze  for  the  common  and 
yellow  ware  had  twenty-five  parts  of  lead  to  two  of  tin. 
These  lead  and  tin  oxides  were  carefully  baked,  ground, 
and  mixed  together,  and  water  and  fine  sand  were  added. 
A  little  molasses  was  also  put  into  the  mixture  to  make 
it  adhesive. 

Colours.  It  was  permissible  to  use  five  colours  in 
decorating  the  finer  ware,  and  for  the  common  ware 
three  colours  were  permissible.  This  did  not  mean 
that  the  use  of  so  many  colours  was  in  any  sense  pre- 
scribed, and  many  of  the  finest  pieces  have  monochrome 
decoration.  If  vases  and  other  ornamental  pieces  had 
polychrome  decorations  before  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  they  have  disappeared.  Tiles,  how- 
ever, which  were  classed  as  common  ware,  have  been 
found  in  three  colours  and  undoubtedly  date  from  the 
seventeenth  century,  as  they  were  built  into  the  walls  of 
churches  and  convents  erected  at  that  period.  'Blue, 
green,  and  yellow  were  favourite  hues  for  tile  decora- 
tion. It  was  also  enjoined  in  the  directions  for  making 
the  fine  pottery  that  the  ware  was  to  be  first  painted 
with  black  ''in  order  that  its  beauty  might  shine  out." 


22         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

This  evidently  meant  that  the  pattern  was  to  be  outlined 
with  black  or  dark  brown  and  then  filled  with  blue  or 
whatever  colour  was  to  be  used,  for  some  of  the  early- 
pieces  were  treated  in  this  way,  especially  some  of  the 
pieces  done  in  the  Chinese  style. 

Varieties.  The  manufacture  of  Mexican  maiolica 
may  be  divided  into  four  well-defined  phases,  which 
began  at  successive  dates,  but  several  of  which  con- 
tinued concurrently.  The  first  was  the  Hispano- 
Moresque  phase,  which  lasted  till  the  end  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  and  shows  a  strong  Moorish  influence, 
w^hicli  is  characterised  by  the  strapwork  and  interlacing 
scrolls.  The  second  phase  was  the  Spanish  or  Talavera, 
so  called  because  the  style  of  design  peculiar  to  the 
maiolica  made  at  Talavera,  in  Spain,  furnished  the  in- 
spiration for  a  type  of  decoration  developed  by  the 
potters  of  Puebla  and  practised  by  them  from  about 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  to  almost  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth.  The  third  phase  was  called  the 
Chinese,  in  which  the  motifs  and  style  were  derived 
from  the  Chinese  pottery  and  porcelain  imported  into 
Mexico  in  the  early  seventeenth  century.  This  style 
made  its  appearance  about  1650,  and  endured  to  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  last  phase  was  the 
Hispano-Mexican  or  Pueblan,  which  began  about  1800 
and  lasted  till  slightly  past  the  middle  of  the  century, 
when  it  sank  into  a  totally  debased  commercial  style. 
By  comparing  dates,  therefore,  we  see  that  the  Spanish 
or  Talavera  and  the  Chinese  phases  apparently  pos- 
sessed the  greatest  vitality  and  enjoyed  the  longest 
vogue,  lasting  concurrently  through  the  greater  part  of 
two  centuries. 

HisPANo-MoRESQUE.    While  it  is  quite  true  that  a 


EARLY  MEXICAN  MAIOLICA  AND  GLASS        23 


good  deal  of  pottery  and  a  good  many  tiles  were  im- 
ported into  Mexico  from  Spain,  from  which  patterns 
were  copied  or  adapted,  it  is  also  quite  true  that  the 
native  potteries  in  Puebla  were  flourishing  vigorously 
and  the  decorators  there  employed  were  fully  capable 
of  developing  designs  that  displayed  not  a  little 
originality,  and  this  truly  Mexican  quality  often  helps 
to  identify  them  as  of  Pueblan  origin.     The  work- 


Plg.  1.     A,  inverted  Peai^shaped  Jar,  blue  decorations  outlined  with  black,  Talavera 
period,  c.  1050-1750.     B,  Albarello  or  Drug  Jar,  same  periud. 

Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art,  Philadelphia. 

manship,  too,  differs  somewhat  from  Spanish  methods, 
and  a  noticeable  characteristic  and  almost  infallible 
proof  of  Mexican  authorship  is  the  way  in  which  thick, 
blue  glaze  stands  out  in  visible  relief  from  the  surface. 
Talaveea.  One  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Spanish 
Talavera  maiolica  was  the  introduction  of  animal,  bird, 
and  human  forms  along  with  flowers  and  foliage  ( Fig.  1 , 
A),  oftentimes  crowded  together  without  the  least  fcol- 


24         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

ing  of  restraint  in  composition.  Blue  figure-work  on  a 
white  enamel  ground  was  also  cliaracteristic.  These 
features  the  Talavera  phase  of  Mexican  maiolica  in- 
corporated, and  another  distinctive  peculiarity  is  found 
in  it  besides — the  tattooed  ornamentation  ''rudely- 
painted  in  dots  and  dashes  in  dark  blue, ' '  which  appears 
on  many  of  the  pieces  of  this  period.  It  is  distinctly 
impressionistic  in  suggestion,  and  must  be  regarded  at 
a  distance  to  get  its  real  artistic  value  and  see  the 
coherence  of  its  design.  Another  highly  characteristic 
type  of  decoration  found  upon  the  Mexican  Talavera 
maiolica  consists  of  flowers,  birds,  or  heavy  conven- 
tional patterns,  boldly  silhouetted  in  raised  dark  blue, 
nearly  covering  the  white  surface. 

Chinese.  So  early  as  the  fore  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  trade  relations  of  some  magnitude  ex- 
isted between  Mexico  and  the  Orient,  and,  naturally 
enough,  a  good  deal  of  excellent  porcelain  and 
pottery  from  Cathay  found  their  way  through  this 
channel  to  the  shores  of  New  Spain.  Naturally  enough, 
also,  their  presence  produced  an  appreciable  effect  upon 
the  colour,  design,  and  shape  of  Mexican  pottery.  The 
Chinese  influence,  once  introduced,  lent  a  new  refine- 
ment to  the  ware  made  at  Puebla,  and  continued  a 
powerful  factor  in  the  maiolica  industry  until  quite  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  This  influence  is  easily 
detected  in  colour,  a  full  rich  blue;  in  shape,  in  the 
contour  of  jars,  which  closely  followed  the  lines  of 
ginger  jars,  and,  also,  in  the  contour  of  vases,  of  which 
not  a  few  were  potted  in  the  inverted  pear  form ;  finally, 
in  types  of  design  and  methods  of  decoration  we  find 
not  only  Chinese  figures  and  decorative  motifs  freely 
employed,  but  also  a  noticeable  following  of  Chinese 
forms  of  combination. 


MEXICAN  MAIOI.ICA  JAR  (18  IN'CHEf^ 
HIGH).  POLYCHROME  DECORATION" 
PUEBLA  PHASE,    c.  1800 

Courtesy    of    Pennsylvania    Mu.scum    and 
Srhool  of  Inrlustrial  .Art 


MEXICAN    MAIOLICA    BA80N    (20,>4    INCHES    IN    DIAMETER). 

BLUE   TATTOO  DECORATION;   TALAVERA  PHASE,    c.  1680 

Courtesy  of  Albert  Pepper,  Esq. 


1.  Muxiian    Maiolica   Salt,    Polychrome   Decoration.      Mexican   Phase,    c.  1830 

Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 

2,  3  and  4,  Mexican  Maiolica   Drug  Jars  or  Flower  Vases.    Blue  Decoration. 

Talavera  Phase,  c.  1700-1740 

Courtesy  of  Dr.  Edwin  AtLee  Barber 


MEXICAN    MAIOLICA  TILES 
2  and  3,  Chinese  Phase,  Dark  Blue  Ground,  Figures  Reserved  in  White,  c.  1650- 
1700;  4,  Painted  in  Blue,  Talavera  and  Chinese  Phases,  c.  1656-1080 
Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


EARLY  MEXICAN  MAIOLICA  AND  GLASS       25 

Four  varieties  of  Chinese  decoration  are  found  in 
the  Mexican  maiolica.  In  the  first,  designs  in  white 
are  reserved  in  a  blue  ground ;  in  the  second,  Chinese 
figures  appear  in  the  scheme ;  in  the  third,  the  impor- 
tant figures  are  of  European  character,  but  tliere  is  a 
perceptible  addition  of  Chinese  motifs,  while  in  tlio 
fourth  variety  there  are  w^hite  medallions  upon  whicli 
are  conventionalised  floral  designs. 

Hispano-Mexican  or  Pueblan.  The  fourth  phase 
of  Mexican  maiolica,  the  Hispano-Mexican  or  Pueblan 


Fig.  2.    Polychrome  Tile,  Hispano-Mexican  phase,  c.  1780. 
Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art,  Philadelphia. 

phase,  was  really  ushered  in  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century  by  the  introduction  of  a  greater 
range  of  colours,  in  which  greens,  purples,  yellows,  and 
browns  were  of  frequent  occurrence.  By  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Chinese  influence  was  a 
negligible  quantity  and  the  Mexican  maiolists  w^ere 
developing  a  style  in  which  crudely  drawn  figures 
(Fig.  2)  appeared.  There  was  also  greater  chromatic 
latitude,  and  red,  black,  and  other  hues,  in  addition  to 
those  already  mentioned,  came  into  popular  use.    ]\Iuch 


26  EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

of  the  more  delicate  colouring,  such  as  rose  and  mauve 
(Fig.  3),  were  introduced  at  a  later  date.  Some  of 
this  fourth-period  work  was  exceedingly  gauche  and 
clumsy,  while  some  of  it,  on  the  contrary,  was  delicate 
in  conception  and  beautiful  in  execution  and  colour. 
The  period  of  decay  had  set  in  and,  by  1850  or  1860, 
nearly  all  the  ware  of  Puebla  had  sunk  to  a  state  of 
commercial  vulgarity,  with  very  little  to  redeem  it. 

In  very  recent  years  etforts  have  been  made  to 
restore  the  craft  to  its  old  level,  and  much  creditable 
work  is  being  produced.     The  movers  in  this  renais- 


Fig.  3.     Bowl  in  green  ftnd  mauve,  Ilispano-Mesican   phase,  c.    1800. 
Courtesy  ol  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art,  Philadelphia 

sance  of  Mexican  maiolica,  while  adhering  to  the  old 
processes,  are  not  copying  the  old  designs  nor  trying  to 
deceive  purchasers.  Since  interest  has  been  manifested 
in  the  old  ware,  fakers  have  sprung  up  and  achieved  a 
certain  degree  of  success  in  counterfeiting  the  original 
pottery,  so  that  a  collector  must  be  keen-eyed  in  ex- 
amining specimens.  By  close  observation,  however, 
and  comparison  with  authenticated  pieces  it  is  possible 
to  detect  forgeries.  The  objects  usually  found  in 
Mexican  maiolica,  besides  the  tiles  with  which  the 
facades  and  interiors  of  churclies  and  convents  were 
often  encrusted,  are  albarelli  or  drug  jars,  jars  for 


EARLY  MEXICAN  MAIOLICA  AND  GLASS       27 

chocolate  or  cocoa,  vases,  barrel-shaped  flower  jars, 
bowls,  circular  dishes,  salt-cellars  (Fig.  4),  inkstands, 
dishes,  cup-holders,  and  basons. 

Glass.  There  is  record  of  glass  being  made  in 
Puebla  at  an  early  date,  and  much  glass  of  beautiful 
quality  and  workmanship  has  been  collected  in  Mexico. 
For  a  long  time  some  of  this  was  thought  to  be  of 
Mexican  origin  and  was  so  labelled  in  museum  collec- 


Fig.  4.     A,  Inkstand.     B,  Albarello.     Both  polychrome.     Hispano-Mexican  phase, 

c.  1800-1830. 
Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  Schoool  of  Industrial  Art,  Pliiladelpliia 

tions.  On  more  recent  investigation,  however,  it  turns 
out  to  have  been  of  Spanish  manufacture,  made  for  the 
Mexican  market.  There  are  also  simpler  ineces  of 
doubtful  origin.  It  is  impossible  to  say  definitely 
whether  they  were  made  in  Mexico  or  not. 

The  best  collections  of  Mexican  maiolica  are  in  the 
Pennsylvania  Museum  of  Industrial  Art,  Philadcliihia, 
and  the  ^Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York  City. 


CHAPTER  III 

EARLY  AMERICAN  GLASS 

ONCE  broken,  never  mended.  The  frailty  of 
glass  is  proverbial,  and  doubtless  it  is  chiefly 
because  of  this  unfortunate  quality  that  the 
search  for  specimens  of  the  glass-blowers'  art,  an  art 
of  absorbing  interest  and  variety,  has  afforded  less 
encouragement  to  collectors  than  some  other  less  brittle 
products  of  the  craftsman's  skill.  Its  fragility  is  cer- 
tainly to  blame  for  our  not  having  more  of  it  left  from 
bygone  days.  Even  with  care,  accidents  will  befall 
from  time  to  time  and  treasured  heirlooms  meet  a 
tragic  end  beyond  all  hope  of  salvation  from  rivets  or 
glue.  And  this,  too,  though  one  sedulously  averts  the 
ravages  committed  by  well-intentioned  but  heavy- 
fingered  housemaids,  whose  feather-dusters  occasion- 
ally become  veritable  besoms  of  destruction. 

Nevertheless,  despite  all  ruin  and  breakage,  we  still 
have  a  good  deal  of  old  American  glass  remaining — • 
quite  enough  to  whet  the  appetite  of  the  collector  and 
add  zest  to  the  studies  of  the  antiquary  or  historian. 

In  the  magazines  that  pay  more  or  less  attention  at 
intervals  to  subjects  of  special  interest  to  the  collector 
or  connoisseur,  old  American  glass  has  received  less 
notice  than  anything  else.  Indeed,  such  scant  con- 
sideration has  it  been  accorded  that  not  seldom  do 
people  say  in  an  incredulous  tone,  on  hearing  it  men- 
tioned, ''Old  American  glass — ^what  is  that!"  It  is 
only  since  the  recently  awakened  w^ave  of  appreciation 
for  the  smaller  antiques  of  American  origin  has  swept 
28 


EARLY  AMERICAN  GLASS  29 

over  the  land  that  people  have  gone  a-soarching  in 
musty,  dusty,  and  long-neglected  corners  and  brought 
to  light  many  a  vitreous  treasure  whose  existence  they 
had  entirely  forgotten  or  to  whose  charms  they  had 
hitherto  been  blind  or  indifferent. 

High  honour  is  due  to  glass  by  right  of  seniority 
among  American  crafts  or  manufacturers.  Glass- 
making  was  the  first  manufacture  engaged  in  by  our 
English  forefathers  in  Xorth  America.  It  was  first 
made  in  Jamesto^\Ti,  Virginia,  in  1608,  and  this  initial 
essay  at  what  is  now  a  vast  and  immensely  profitable 
industry  was  undertaken  under  the  supervision  of  Cap- 
tain Christopher  Newport,  wdiile  the  second,  a  few  years 
subsequently,  was  carried  out  under  the  eye  of  that 
most  picturesque  and  redoubtable  old  hero,  Captain 
John  Smith. 

Glass,  too,  if  we  may  believe  the  records,  formed  a 
part  of  the  first  cargo  exported  from  the  infant  colony 
to  the  Mother  Country  to  show  what  could  be  produced 
on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  and  excite  an  interest 
among  men  of  substance  and  adventurous  investors  at 
home  that  might  redound  to  the  profit  of  the  settlers. 

After  the  first  manufacturing  venture,  we  hear 
little  or  nothing  of  glass-making  until,  in  1621,  a  second 
glass-house  was  built  in  Jamesto^m,  which  continued 
in  operation  till  1625.  Of  the  product  of  this  old  Vir- 
ginia glass-house  we  have  but  a  few  shattered  frag- 
ments and  a  few  coloured  beads  that  seem  to  have 
been  made  for  trade  with  the  Indians.  In  a  way,  there- 
fore, the  first  American  glass  factory  was  also  the  first 
American  mint.  Eight  Polos  and  Germans  had  been 
brought  over  to  work  at  the  first  attempt  at  glass- 
making  in  1608,  and,  for  the  second  attempt,  the  London 


30         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Company  sent  out  four  Italians.  Some  of  the  beads 
produced  in  the  second  Jamestown  glass-house  are  to 
be  seen  at  Memorial  Hall  (a  part  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Arts),  in  Fairmount 
Park,  Philadelphia.  Some  are  round,  of  the  bigness  of 
a  pea,  some  elliptical,  and  a  few  square.  In  colour  they 
are  ''light  transparent  green  with  longitudinal  white 
markings,  opaque  white  and  translucent  turquoise.'' 
The  w^orkmanshiiD  of  the  beads  attests  a  high  order 
of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workers,  as  does  also  a  frag- 
ment of  a  bowl  top  and  a  few  broken  bits  of  window 
glass — the*  only  remaining  evidence  of  the  output  of  this 
short-lived  undertaking. 

Then  glass-making  was  abandoned  at  Jamestown, 
and  we  hear  no  more  of  it  till  fourteen  or  fifteen  years 
later,  when  different  conditions  attended  the  enterprise. 
Eude  bottles,  window  glass,  bulls'  eyes  or  roundels, 
and  sundry  other  glass  articles,  much  needed  by  the 
colonists,  began  to  be  manufactured  at  Salem,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1638  or  1639,  and  some  of  the  quaint  speci- 
mens preserved  to  us,  and  still  occasionally  to  be  found 
in  out-of-the-way  places,  date  very  probably  from  the 
inception  of  this  first  New  England  attempt.  This 
venture  was  abandoned  after  three  or  four  years. 

The  next  essay  at  glass  manufacture  was  made  in 
New  York.  There,  in  1654,  we  find  one  Jan  Smeedes 
operating  a  glass-house.  In  1655,  a  rival,  Evert  Duyc- 
kingk,  ventured  into  the  field.  What  they  made  we  can 
only  conjecture,  for  no  authenticated  specimens  of 
their  handiwork  have  come  to  light. 

'By  1683  a  glass-house  was  in  operation  in  Philadel- 
phia, one  Joshua  Tittery,  a  glass-maker  from  New- 
castle-on-Tyne,  being  employed  in  that  capacity  by  the 


EARLY  AMERICAN  GLASS  31 

'^ Society  of  Traders."  In  1707,  at  Schwonksville,  on 
the  Perkiomen  Creek,  Pennsylvania,  a  member  of  the 
Pennypacker  family  founded  a  glass-house,  which  con- 
tinued in  operation  for  four  or  five  years  and  produced 
bottles  and  other  articles  much  needed  by  the  colonists 
of  the  neighbourhood.  New  York  followed  with  two 
factories  in  operation  by  1732 ;  then  came  Caspar , 
Wistar's  New  Jersey  factory  in  1739,  an  enterprise  of 
great  importance  in  the  annals  of  American  glass; 
while  Connecticut  came  next,  in  1747 ;  Boston  records  a 
venture  in  1749,  and  in  1754  still  another  glass  establish- 
ment was  set  up  in  Brooklyn  by  LoderAvick  Bampor. 
Between  1750  and  1760  a  glass-house  was  operated  at 
Quincy,  Massachusetts,  which  seems  to  have  turned 
out  little  else  than  the  coarsest  green  bottles.  Between 
1753  and  1785  a  glass  establishment  of  some  conse- 
quence w^as  conducted  at  New  Windsor,  Orange 
County,  New  York,  and,  between  1754  and  1757,  the 
Glass  House  Company  in  New  York  made  "all  sorts 
of  Bottles  from  1  Qt.  to  3  Gallons  and  upwards  as  also 
a  variety  of  other  Glass  Ware  too  tedious  to  mention, 
all  at  reasonable  rates,"  and  sold  them,  along  with 
''Chymical  Glasses"  at  their  ''Store  on  the  late  Sir 
Peter  Warren's  dock  at  the  North  River,"  a  spot  on 
part  of  the  Glass  House  Farm. 

Between  1763  and  1765,  that  extraordinar}"  man, 
''Baron"  Heinrich  Wilhelm  Stiegel,  was  starting  his 
glass-works  in  Lancaster  County,  Pennsylvania,  which, 
along  with  Caspar  Wistar's  earlier  establishment  at 
Wistarberg,  near  Allowaystown  in  West  Jersey,  may 
be  regarded  as  the  two  Colonial  enterprises  of  para- 
mount distinction  and  significance  in  the  manufacture 
of  glass,  both  from  the  great  variety  of  the  products 


32  EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

turned  out  and  the  excellence  of  their  quality,  and  like- 
wise for  the  interest  attaching  to  the  personality  of  the 
founders.  Both  of  these  are  treated  more  fully  later  in 
this  chapter. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  and  early  part 
of  the  nineteenth  centuries  we  hear  of  a  number  of 
glass  factories  springing  up  and  being  successfully 
operated  for  various  periods  of  time.  Some  were  quite 
meteoric  in  their  careers  and  disappeared  as  suddenly 
as  they  arose ;  others  continued  until  varying  local  or 
personal  conditions  dictated  their  abandonment ;  while 
still  others,  with  singular  stability,  have  continued  in 
active  progress  to  our  own  day. 

These  factories  were  found  scattered  over  different 
parts  of  the  country.  One  was  at  Temple,  New  Hamp- 
shire (1779),  another  at  Keene,  in  the  same  State. 
Boston  (1787),  Albany  (1792),  and,  in  Connecticut, 
Coventry  (1813),  also  had  important  works.  Besides 
the  Caspar  Wistar  glass-house,  founded  in  1739,  near 
Allowaystown,  in  Salem  County,  New  Jersey  boasted 
flourishing  factories  at  Columbia  (1812)  and  Glassboro 
(1775),  the  last  named  of  which  must  be  classed  with 
some  of  the  glass  w^orks  in  Kensington  (Dyottville, 
1771),  Philadelphia,  and  the  Baltimore  glass  works 
(1790),  all  of  them  founded  in  the  eighteenth  century 
and  enjoying  the  distinction  of  being  the  "oldest  glass 
establishments  in  the  United  States  that  are  still  in 
operation. "  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  glass-making 
was  begun  in  Pittsburgh  in  1795. 

As  we  have  noted,  the  chief  product  of  the  James- 
town adventure  seems  to  have  been  a  quantity  of  col- 
oured beads  for  Indian  trade.  Not  many  years  later, 
the  works  started  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  engaged  in 


GLASS    BEADS    MADE    IX    JAMESTOWX,    MUGINIA,    EARLY    IN    SEVENTEENTH 

CEXTIRY.     NIXETEEXTH   CKXTl  HV  GLASS  CUP   PLATES 

Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


STIEGEL  GLASS  OF  CHARACTERISTIC  PATTERN:  COLOURED 

AXD  MOULDED 

Courtesy  of  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York  City 


GREEN  GLASS  FLOWER  JAR  OF  NEW  JERSEY        SPIRAL   MOULDED   PITCHER     PROBABI 
MAKE,  PROBABLY  FROM  WISTARBERG  FROM  WISTARBERG 

Courtesy  of  John  C.  Nippes,  Esq.,  Haddonfleld,  New  Jersey 


EARLY  AMERICAN  GLASS  33 

the  making  of  bottles,  and  from  thence  onward,  as  one 
might  expect,  bottles  and  window  glass  were  the  staple 
products  of  the  American  glass  factories,  along  with 
the  other  articles  they  turned  out  as  demand  required. 

The  flasks  and  bottles  blo^\m  and  pressed  in  moulds 
were  a  later  development  and  enjoyed  tremendous 
vogue  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
They  were  made  in  many  colours,  in  a  wide  variety  of 
shapes,  and  the  devices  moulded  on  their  sides  repre- 
sented every  conceivable  phase  of  American  life,  social, 
political,  or  what  not.  There  were  Henry  Clay  bottles 
and  Jenny  Lind  bottles,  Kobert  Fulton  bottles  and 
Lafayette  bottles,  Washington  bottles  and  Thomas  Jef- 
ferson bottles — in  short,  if  any  American  or  distin- 
guished foreigner  had  attained  either  fame  or  notoriety, 
it  was  deemed  sufficient  cause  to  make  his  or  her  like- 
ness an  outer  decoration  for  the  whiskey  or  rum  bottles 
whose  contents  assisted  the  patriotism  or  pride  of 
the  possessor.  The  pressed  glass  ''cup  plates,"  several 
of  which  are  shown  in  one  of  the  plate  illustrations,* 
also  belonged  to  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 
and  were  a  concession  to  the  objectionable  table  man- 
ners of  the  period  which  condoned  the  sloppy  practice 
of  pouring  tea  or  coffee  out  of  cups  into  saucers  and 
drinking  it  therefrom.  The  glass  "cup  plates,"  deco- 
rated with  a  variety  of  designs,  as  accessories  to  this 
habit  were  meant  to  stand  the  dripping  cups  in  and 
keep  them  from  soiling  the  table-cloth  while  the  saucers 
were  perv^erted  to  an  unnatural  use. 

After  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
design  of  glass-ware  seems  to  have  experienced  a  period 
of  pronounced  decadence,  and,  altliougli  a  "dyed-in-the- 
wool"  collector,  inspired  by  collecting  instincts  only, 

3 


34 


EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


may  find  much  to  interest  him  in  the  later  productions,  it 
is  chiefly  to  the  glass  of  Colonial  and  immediately  post- 
Colonial  days  that  we  must  turn  for  grace  of  form  to 
delight  the  eye.  Even  the  old  milk  bowls,  pitchers,  jam 
pots,  sugar  bowls,  and  tumblers  for  common  use  pos- 
sessed a  refinement  of  shape  and  a  grace  that  captivate 
us.  The  decorative  value  of  the  old  glass  is  very  great. 
One  needs  only  to  glance  at  some  of  the  specimens  to 
be  seen  in  museums  and  antique  shops  to  be  convinced 
of  this.  Furthermore,  this  decorative  value  is  suscep- 
tible of  profitable  application  to  our  own  domestic  needs. 


Fig.  1.  Old  American  Bottles:  A,  fiddle-shaped,  raised  design  of  stars  and  ecrolls; 
B,  ribbed  or  corrugated  sides;  C,  spiral  ribbed  or  corrugated  sides,  from  Pitkin  Glass 
Works,  Manchester,  Conn.,  between  1783  and  1830,  blown  in  patterned  moulds;  D, 
square-shouldered  snuff  bottle,  made  at  Coventry,  Conn.,  c.  1825. 

Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art,  Philadelphia. 

One  cannot  help  wondering  what  may  have  been  the 
sources  of  the  shapes  in  which  many  pieces  of  early 
glass  were  blowm,  for  forms  quite  as  much  as  anything 
else  experience  a  process  of  evolution  or,  at  least,  are 
traceable  to  some  germ  of  suggestion.  It  is  not  at  all 
impossible  that  some  of  our  early  flask  forms  were  pat- 
terned after  Chinese  prototypes  brought  out  by  East 
India  merchants  whose  importations  caused  the  Orien- 


EARLY  AMERICAN  GLASS  35 

tal  note  in  so  much  of  the  Colonial  household  gear  in 
New  England  and  other  parts  of  the  country  (Fig.  1). 
Personality,  in  every  imaginable  connexion,  counts 
for  more  than  we  ordinarily  realise.  Its  intrinsic  force 
and  the  interest  it  compels  now  and  again  come  plainly 
into  evidence  above  the  surface  of  the  prosaic,  every- 
day affairs  and  lay  bare  the  romance  attaching  even  to 
business  dealings  and  enterprises  that  we  are  apt  to 
regard  as  altogether  commonplace.  The  inlierent  ro- 
mance attending  business  venture  and  the  glamour  of 
picturesque  personality  are  present  quite  as  much  in 
the  inception  and  pursuit  of  early  American  crafts  and 
industries  as  in  undertakings  of  far  greater  extent  and 
more  recent  upbuilding.  This  was  notably  true  with 
reference  to  the  manufacture  of  the  Wistar  glass  in 
West  Jersey  and  of  the  Stiegel  glass  in  Pennsylvania 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  The  founders  of  both  enter- 
prises were  men  who  would  have  made  their  mark  in 
any  community.  Some  biographical  notice  of  each, 
therefore,  is  desirable  and  will  doubtless  contribute 
much  to  the  interest  and  appreciation  pertaining  to  the 
wares  for  which  they  were  responsible.  Caspar  Wistar 
is  one  of  those  sterling  figures  that  stand  forth  with 
refreshing  piquancy  in  the  sturdy  pioneer  age  of  our 
country.  Baron  Stiegel  of  Manheim  presents  one  of 
the  most  picturesque  as  well  as  one  of  the  least  under- 
stood personalities  in  our  Colonial  history. 

CASPAR  WISTAR  AND  HIS  GLASS  WORKS  IN  WEST  JERSEY 

Caspar  Wistar,  who,  in  1739,  established  the  glass 
works  in  Salem  County,  in  West  Jersey,  near  what  is 
now  Allowaystown,  came  from  Wald-TTilspacb,  in  the 
Electorate  of  Heidelberg,  and  settled  in  Philadelphia  in 


36         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

1717.  He  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits  and  soon  won 
recognition  as  a  merchant  of  substance  and  active  public 
spirit.  To  his  merchandising  he  soon  added  manufac- 
turing, and  was  highly  successful  as  the  maker  of  brass 
buttons  ''warranted  for  seven  years."  In  1726  he 
married  Catherine  Jansen,  of  Wyck,  in  Germantown 
(see  ''The  Colonial  Homes  of  Philadelphia  and  Its 
Neighbourhood,"  page  236;  Eberlein  and  Lippincott), 
and  in  the  following  year  was  born  his  son  Richard, 
who  eventually  succeeded  him  in  the  making  of  glass 
and  in  the  other  industries  in  which  he  was  interested. 

Like  many  another  of  the  strenuous  pioneers  who 
aided  in  laying  the  foundations  of  our  national  pros- 
perity, Caspar  Wistar  was  resourceful,  always  had  his 
eyes  open  to  opportunities  to  be  grasped,  and,  what  was 
more  to  the  point,  knew  how  to  make  the  best  use  of 
them  when  they  came.  He  had  been  keenly  alive  to  the 
need  of  glass  works  to  supply  the  constant  and  growing 
demand  in  the  Province  and  the  adjacent  Colonies,  for 
all  the  previous  attempts  at  manufacturing  glass  had 
either  been  abandoned  as  failures  shortly  after  their 
inception  or  else  had  dragged  out  a  weak  and  insig- 
nificant existence.  Accordingly,  in  1738  and  the  early 
part  of  the  following  year,  he  acquired  several  tracts  of 
land  in  Salem  County,  in  West  Jersey,  a  site  that  com- 
mended itself  as  uniting  the  advantages  of  an  abundant 
supply  of  both  Avood  for  fuel  and  sand  and  also,  by  no 
means  the  least  important,  easy  access  by  water,  as 
shallops  and  sloops  could  come  up  Alloways  Creek  to 
a  wharf  on  the  property.  Here  he  built  his  glass-house 
and  other  necessary  buildings,  including  a  store  for  the 
sale  of  general  merchandise. 

Late  in  1739  the  factory  was  put  into  operation  with 


EARLY  AMERICAN  GLASS  37 

the  assistance  of  expert  artisans  fetched  hither  from 
Holland.  In  a  document  dated  December  7,  1738,  Cas- 
par Wistar  agreed  to  pay  Captain  James  Marshall  for 
the  transportation  from  Rotterdam  of  John  William 
Wentzell,  Casper  Halter,  John  Martin  Halton,  and 
Simon  Kreismeier.  By  the  further  terms  of  the  agree- 
ment these  men  were  to  teach  Caspar  Wistar  and  his  son 
Richard,  and  no  one  else,  the  mysteries  of  the  craft  of 
making  glass.  He,  in  return,  was  to  *  ^provide  land,  fuel, 
servants,  food  and  materials,"  and  "to  advance  money 
for  all  expenses,  including  their  support,  and  to  give 
them  one-third  of  the  net  profits ' '  of  the  undertaking. 

At  the  period  when  Wistar  set  his  glass  factory  in 
operation  wealth  was  rapidly  increasing  in  the  Colonies, 
and  one  result  of  the  prosperity  was  a  corresponding 
increase  in  building.  Houses  were  becoming  larger  and 
architecturally  more  imposing,  and  a  great  deal  more 
glass  was  needed  for  glazing  them  than  in  previous 
years.  That  Wistar  clearly  foresaw  a  growing  market 
for  window  glass,  a  market  tliat  was  bound  to  expand 
rapidly  under  favourable  conditions  of  supply,  and  that 
he  also  recognised  the  rich  opportunity  awaiting  any 
one  who  could  adequately  meet  the  American  demand 
for  indispensable  bottles  of  various  types,  we  may  be 
sure,  knowing,  as  we  do  from  his  earlier  history,  his 
characteristic  business  acumen.  The  importance  of 
the  conditions  just  alluded  to,  and  the  improving  facili- 
ties for  water  traffic  with  the  other  Colonies  from  Phila- 
delphia as  a  shipping  centre,  doubtless  influenced  liiiii 
in  reaching  a  well-matured  determination  to  engage  in 
the  enterprise  under  discussion.  The  soundness  of  his 
calculations  was  fully  borne  out  by  the  result  of  the 
undertaking,  for  the  factory  at  Wistarberg  was  the 


3S         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

first  important,  enduring,  and  commercially  successful 
venture  in  the  manufacture  of  glass  in  the  Colonies. 

Under  the  conditions  just  pointed  out,  it  was  but 
natural  that  the  chief  output  of  the  Wistarberg  glass 
works  should  consist  of  window  glass  and  bottles.  But, 
though  these  two  staple  products  insured  the  financial 
success  of  the  new  industry,  sundry  articles  of  house- 
hold ware  were  made  as  the  demand  for  them  became 
evident  or  as  the  initiative  of  the  workers  prompted 
their  design  and  manufacture  from  time  to  time.  These 
articles  included  dishes,  the  several  sorts  of  drinking 
vessels,  bowls,  pitchers,  j^ickle  jars,  snuff  canisters, 
scent  bottles,  drug  bottles,  lamp  glasses,  vases,  meas- 
ures, mustard  pots,  pitchers,  and  like  objects  of  utility 
or  decoration.   Globes,  tubes,  and  other  laboratorv  ac- 

7  7  t^ 

cessories  also  formed  a  part  of  the  output  of  the  factory. 

The  technical  skill  displayed  in  the  making  of  these 
miscellaneous  wares  was  of  no  mean  order,  and,  in 
colour  and  design,  the  pieces  possessed  a  marked 
individuality  and  genuine  refinement.  Inasmuch  as  the 
skilled  workmen  employed  at  Wistarberg  came  from 
Holland,  at  least  at  the  beginning  of  operations,  it  is 
easy  to  understand  the  characteristically  Dutch  forms 
exhibited  by  many  of  the  pieces  produced  in  the  factory. 

"Wistar  was  the  first  American  glass  manufacturer 
'  to  make  flint  glass.  This  he  used  for  the  white  and 
coloured  table  and  household  ware,  sometimes  employ- 
ing a  single  colour,  sometimes  combining  several  col- 
ours in  the  same  piece  or  fashioning  a  pitcher  or  jar 
partly  of  transparent  flint,  partly  of  coloured  glass.  A 
rich  green  flint  glass  was  evidently  much  favoured  by 
the  makers.  Numerous  pieces  were  also  made  in  a  rich 
brown  with  a  lively  amber  light  in  it.    AVhile  dark  blue 


EARLY  AMERICAN  GLASS  39 

was  not  employed  to  any  great  extent,  as  it  was  after- 
wards at  the  Stiegel  works,  such  as  was  made  was  of 
exceptionally  fine  quality.  Interesting  and  varied  deco- 
rative effects  w^ere  obtained  by  superimposing  coatings 
of  glass,  in  sundry  patterns  such  as  waves  and  spirals, 
upon  portions  of  partly  finished  pieces,  the  imposed 
coating  and  the  original  body  then  being  welded  to- 
gether. This  method  of  variegation  was  in  addition 
to  the  combination,  before  mentioned,  of  several  colours, 
where  one  finds  clear  flint  or  emerald  green  with  opaque  ■ 
white;  clear  flint  or  emerald  green  with  browm;  blue,  - 
green,  and  opaque  white  or  blue,  amber  and  flint.  Then 
there  w^re  turquoise  blue  glass,  both  opaque  and  trans- 
parent, and  a* '  bluish,  golden  opalescent ' '  glass,  peculiar 
to  the  factory  at  Wistarberg.  Some  of  the  early  * '  bottle ' ' 
or  ''green"  glass  bowls,  pitchers,  and  dishes  showed 
agreeable  green,  bluish-green,  or  brown  colourings. 

Caspar  Wistar  died  in  1752,  and  the  business  was 
then  carried  on  by  his  son  Richard,  who  had  been  asso- 
ciated w^ith  his  father  since  the  inception  of  the  enter- 
prise. In  September,  1769,  when  the  Stiegel  glass  works 
at  Manheim  were  flourishing  vigorously,  the  following 
advertisement  appeared  in  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette: 

"Made  at  the  subscriber's  Glass  Works  between  300  and 
400  boxes  of  Window  glass  consisting  of  common  sizes 
10  X  12,  9  X  11,  8  X  10,  7  X  9,  G  X  8.  Lamp  glasses 
or  any  uncommon  sizes  under  IG  X  18  are  cut  on  short 
notice.  I^Iost  sort  of  bottles,  gallon,  1/2  gallon,  and 
quart,  full  measure  1/0  gallon  cafe  bottles,  snuff  and 
mustard  bottles  also  electrofying  globes  and  tubes  &c. 
All  glass  American  Manufacture  and  America  ought 
also  encourage  her  own  manufacture.  X.B.  lie  also 
continues  to  make  the  Philadelphia  brass  buttons  noted 
for  their  strength  and  such  as  were  made  by  his  de- 
ceased father  and  warranted  for  7  years. 

Richard  Wistab." 


40         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

There  seems  to  be  good  reason  to  believe  that  the 
glass  works  continued  in  uninterrupted  and  prosperous 
operation  until  the  early  part  of  1780.  At  that  time  the 
business  stagnation  that  had  undermined  or  seriously 
affected  so  many  other  American  industries  made  it 
advisable  to  discontinue  work  at  Wistarberg,  and  the 
factory  was  offered  for  sale  in  the  pages  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Journal,  in  October  of  that  year,  with  the 
accompanying  description  of  the  plant : 

"Two  furnaces  with  the  necessary  ovens  for  casting 
glass,  drying  wood  &c.  Near  by  are  two  flattening 
ovens  in  separate  houses,  a  store  house,  a  pot  house, 
a  house  with  tables  for  cutting  glass,  stamping  mill, 
rolling  mill  for  preparing  glass  for  working  pots. 
Dwellings  for  workmen.  Mansion  House,  G  rooms  to  a 
floor.  Bake  house  and  wash  house.  Store  house.  Re- 
tail shop  kept  for  30  years  being  a  good  stand  IV3 
miles  from  the  Creek  where  shallops  land  from  Phila- 
delphia, 8  miles  from  Salem,  l^  mile  from  good  mill. 
250  acres  of  cleared  land  in  fence,  100  acres  of  mowable 
meadow  for  large  stock  of  horses  and  cattle.  Stalling 
for  60  head  of  cattle,  a  barn,  granary,  wood  house  and 
wood  lot." 

Eichard  Wistar  died  in  1781,  and,  by  the  terms  of 
his  will,  his  executors  had  authority  to  lease  or  sell  the 
glass-house.  Thus  ended  an  exceedingly  interesting 
chapter  in  the  history  of  American  glass  manufacture. 
To  Caspar  Wistar  and  his  son  Richard  must  be  ac- 
corded the  credit  of  having  founded  and  conducted  for 
nearly  half  a  century  the  first  successful  glass-making 
enterprise  in  the  Colonies,  and  likewise  the  credit  of 
producing  the  first  flint  glass.  At  the  same  time,  the 
Wistarberg  glass  factory  must  be  credited  with  putting 
forth  at  an  early  date  in  Colonial  history  decorative 


EARLY  AMERICAN  GLASS  41 

glass-ware  of  a  liigli  order  of  technical  merit  and  artistic 
beauty  that  compares  most  favourably  with,  and  often 
far  surpasses,  the  finished  products  of  a  much  later  day. 

"  BAROX  "  STIEGEL  OF  :\rAXHEIM 

The  good  ship  Nancy,  Thomas  Coatam,  master, 
sailed  up  the  Delaware  in  Aug-ust,  1750,  and  on  the  31st 
came  to  anchor  in  the  port  of  Philadelphia,  then  the 
metropolis  and  most  important  shipping  centre  of  the 
Colonies.  Among  her  passengers  was  one  Heinrich 
Wilhelm  Stiegel — or  Henry  William  Stiegel,  as  he  later 
signed  his  name^ — a  young  German  of  twenty-one,  hail- 
ing from  the  Rhine  country  near  Cologne.  His  personal 
history  prior  to  his  coming  to  America  and  for  a  short 
period  thereafter  is  obscure.  Unfortunately,  we  can 
give  but  little  credence  to  most  of  what  has  been  printed 
about  him  in  past  years,  but  a  considerable  bulk  of 
manuscript  material  relating  to  him  and  his  enterprises 
may  be  found  in  the  collection  of  the  Pennsylvania  His- 
torical Society.  Aided  by  these  documents,  and  as  a 
result  of  careful  search  in  other  quarters,  F.  W.  Hunter, 
Esq.,  of  New  York,  an  enthusiastic  collector  and  in- 
vestigator, published,  in  1914,  a  volume  that  has  thrown 
much  fresh  light  on  the  story  of  Stiegel  and  his  ill- 
starred  ventures. 

Whatever  else  may  be  uncertain,  we  do  know  that 
he  was  a  person  of  substance,  for  he  soon  assumed  a 
prominent  position  as  a  landowner  and  iron-master  in 
Lancaster  County,  whither  the  business  associations  he 
formed,  soon  after  his  arrival,  led  him.  It  is  said  of 
liim  that,  dissatisfied  with  conditions  in  his  native  land 
and  fired  with  enthusiasm  by  the  reputed  opportunities 
to  be  found  in  the  American  Colonies,  he  migrated 


42  EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

hither  with  a  fortune  of  forty  thousand  pounds  to  in- 
vest in  the  upbuilding  of  a  new  country  where  he  might 
shape  his  future  without  let  or  hindrance  from  Old- 
World  tradition  or  prejudice.  We  know,  also,  that 
in  November,  1752,  he  married  Elizabeth  Huber,  the 
daughter  of  Jacob  Huber,  of  'Brickerville,  in  Lancaster 
County,  who  owned  one  of  the  oldest  iron  furnaces  in 
the  Province.  Not  long  after,  he  built  a  house  near  the 
Falls  of  Schuylkill,  now  a  part  of  Philadelphia,  and 
seems  to  have  kept  up  an  active  connexion  both  with  city 
concerns  and  his  affairs  in  Lancaster  County. 

Li  1757  he  bought  a  large  interest  in  the  Bricker- 
ville establishment,  tore  down  the  old  building,  and  re- 
placed it  by  a  larger  and  more  efficient  plant,  which  he 
named  Elizabeth  Furnace,  in  honour  of  his  wife.  As 
an  independent  iron-master  he  prospered  and  won  wide 
reputation,  largely  augmenting,  no  doubt,  whatever 
fortune  he  may  have  possessed  at  his  arrival  in  America. 
He  specialised  in  stoves  with  great  success,  constantly 
improving  on  early  models  until  he  finally  put  forth  the 
famous  ''Baron  Stiegel"  ten-plate  wood  stove.  He 
likewise  introduced  an  improved  stove  form  of  Ben- 
jamin Franklin's  open  hearth.  Later  still  he  made  all 
kinds  of  castings  for  sundry  purposes,  and  a  consider- 
able item  of  his  business  was  the  supplying  of  sugar 
planters'  and  refiners'  castings  for  the  West  Lidia 
trade. 

His  stoves  are  still  occasionally  to  be  found  and  are 
sometimes  ornamented  with  the  much-favoured  tulip 
device  cast  in  one  of  the  plates.    Others  bear  the  legend : 

"Baron  Stiegel  ist  der  Mann 
Der  die  Ofen  Maehen  Kann  " 

also  cast  in  one  of  the  plates. 


1  and  2,  "Green"  Glass  Saucer  and  Milk  Bowl,  New  Jersey,  Early  Eighteenth  Century 

3-7,  Tumblers,  Wine  Glasses  and  Milk  Bowl.  EiRhteenth  and  Early  Nineteenth  Centuries 
Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 

8  and  •).  Bottle  Mould  and  Moulded  Bottle.  Early  Nineteenth  Century 
Courtesy  of  Pennsjlvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


STIEGEL  GLASS,  COLOURED  AND  WHITE 
Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  IMuseum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


"  """~^ 

m~. 

^ 

■'-? 

^. 

■^ 

€ 

■i 

1.  Stiegel  Glass  Tumbler  with  Cover.  Courtesy  of  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York  City. 
2.  Pear-shaped  Bottle  with  Tree  Device.  In  possession  of  H.  D.  Lberlein,  Esq.  3.  Stiegel  Glass  Multi- 
coloured Enamelled  Tumbler.     In  possession  of  Abbot  McClure,  Esq. 


EARLY  AMERICAN  GLASS  43 

Whether  Stiegel  had  or  had  not  a  right  to  the  title 
of  ''baron"  has  long  been  a  subject  of  dispute,  but  the 
foregoing  inscription  certainly  lends  colour  to  the  con- 
tention of  those  who  believe  he  had.  His  manner  of 
life  and  the  state  he  always  maintained  about  him  in 
his  prosperous  days  were  probably  suggested  by  early 
recollections  of  some  such  ceremonious  surroundings 
rather  than  the  result  of  mere  fantastic  vagary  and 
love  of  ostentation.  The  varied  accomplishments  of 
which  he  gave  evidence  from  time  to  time  also  bespeak 
an  education  and  training  beyond  the  ordinary  that 
would  have  ill  assorted  with  the  charlatanry  of  an 
arrant  impostor. 

In  1762  Stiegel  associated  himself  with  Charles  and 
Alexander  Stedman,  merchants,  of  Philadelphia,  who 
had  bought  a  tract  of  land  in  Lancaster  County  w^hich 
included  the  small  settlement  of  Manheim.  In  this 
enterprise  Stiegel  at  first  had  a  third  interest,  but 
increased  his  holdings,  the  partnership  took  the  name  of 
"The  Stiegel  Company,"  and  acquired  more  and  more 
ground,  and,  eventually,  gained  control  of  more  than 
eleven  thousand  acres  of  the  most  valuable  mineral 
land  in  Pennsylvania.  In  the  end  Stiegel  bought  the 
interests  of  the  Stedman  brothers  from  Isaac  Cox,  of 
Philadelphia,  and  became  sole  owner  and  master  of  a 
truly  baronial  estate.  This  large  investment  in  un- 
developed lands  with  borrowed  capital,  along  with  dis- 
turbed economic  conditions  between  Great  Britain  and 
her  American  Colonies  and  a  too  lavish  expenditure  for 
the  upkeep  of  his  personal  establishment,  was  ulti- 
mately the  cause  of  Stiegel 's  undoing.  Before  the 
blows  of  misfortune  fell,  however,  he  was  to  make  liis 
name  famous,  both  as  a  manufacturer  of  exquisite 


44         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

glass-ware  that  rivalled  some  of  the  choicest  products 
of  the  Old  World,  and  as  an  eccentric  character  about 
whom  the  generations  that  followed  loved  to  relate 
picturesque  stories. 

Soon  after  his  association  with  the  Stedmans, 
Stiegel  began  to  turn  his  attention  seriously  to  the 
making  of  glass,  and,  with  his  wonted  energy,  in  a 
short  time  put  the  industry  on  a  paying  basis.  His 
interest  in  this  undertaking  was  so  great  that  he  seems 
to  have  preferred  to  be  known  as  a  glass  manufacturer 
rather  than  as  an  iron-master.  Between  1763  and  1765 
he  conducted  the  experimental  steps  of  his  new  venture 
at'Brickerville  while  the  larger  glass  works  at  Manheim 
were  a-building.  The  output  of  the  Brickerville  works, 
of  course,  never  rivalled  the  products  of  Manheim, 
being  purely  commercial  and  consisting  chiefly  of 
bottles  and  window  glass.  In  1763-1764,  while  in  Eng- 
land, he  engaged  skilled  English  and  German  glass- 
blowers  at  Bristol  to  come  to  America,  and  it  was 
doubtless  to  the  presence  of  these  trained  workmen  at 
Manheim  that  the  Stiegel  glass  produced  there  owed 
much  of  its  excellence  and  its  well-deserved  fame. 

Although  Stiegel  had  a  comfortable  home  at  Eliza- 
beth Furnace,  or  Brickerville,  his  chief  place  of  abode 
was  now  at  Manheim,  where  he  had  built  himself  a 
spacious  and  costly  house,  in  which  he  maintained  a  ret- 
inue of  servants  and  altogether  kept  up  a  style  of  life 
quite  in  accord  with  the  baronial  title.  It  is  said,  when  he 
drove  abroad  or  went  from  one  estate  to  another,  that 
he  rode  in  a  great  coach  drawn  by  eight  white  horses 
with  outriders.  A  pack  of  hounds  was  wont  to  precede 
this  imposing  equipage,  and  when  the  ''baron"  either 
went  out  from  or  came  back  in  state  to  his  hall  his  de- 


EARLY  AMERICAN  GLASS  45 

parture  or  return  was  announced  by  the  firing  of  a 
small  cannon.  He  is  also  said  to  have  maintained  a 
band  of  musicians  to  accompany  him  and  play  for  his 
delectation  at  meals  and  other  times,  but  if  the  truth 
were  fully  known,  it  would  probably  turn  out  that  there 
were  certain  skilled  performers  among  his  workmen 
who  voluntarily  associated  themselves  for  ensemble 
playing  and  occasionally  gave  recitals  for  the  pleasure 
of  their  patron,  who  is  reputed  to  have  been  no  mean 
musician  himself.  In  the  same  way  it  is  highly  probable 
that  a  thorough  sifting  of  tradition  and  weighing  of 
evidence  would  show  the  state  coach  with  its  eight 
horses  to  have  been  a  coach-and-four,  such  as  many 
people  of  substance  kept  at  the  time  and  used  fre- 
quently. They  were  huge,  lumbering  concerns,  liigh 
swung  on  springs,  with  folding  steps  to  let  down  when 
the  doors  were  opened.  The  coachman  was  perched 
on  a  high  box  in  front,  while  behind,  on  the  post-board, 
stood  the  liveried  footmen.  On  the  door  panels  were 
blasoned  the  arms  of  the  o^vner,  and  there  was  usually 
some  additional  painted  or  gilt  decoration.  Several  of 
these  old  coaches  are  still  to  be  found  in  Philadelphia 
and  its  neighbourhood,  and  doubtless  in  other  places 
as  well,  carefully  treasured  as  curiosities  by  the 
descendants  of  the  original  possessors. 

Besides  the  lordly  house  at  Manheim,  with  its 
tapestried  walls  and  the  quaint  chapel  in  which  the 
master  was  accustomed  to  expound  the  Scriptures  to 
his  retainers,  Stiegel  built  himself  a  commodious  office 
and  the  glass  works  already  referred  to.  Tlie  latter 
were  constructed  of  bricks  hauled  from  Philadelpliia 
in  Conestoga  waggons  to  Lancaster  and  thence  to  ^Maii- 
lieini.    It  is  said  that  the  bricks  "were  imported  from 


46         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

England,  which  may  or  may  not  have  been  the  case, 
as  Colonial  bricks  are  frequently  termed  "English" 
or  ''Dutch,"  to  distinguish  the  traditional  differences 
in  size  and  shape  which  were  perpetuated  among  the 
Colonists  of  English  or  Dutch  extraction. 

The  glass-house  of  these  works,  built  in  the  form 
of  a  dome,  was  large  enough,  we  are  told,  for  a  six- 
horse  team  to  drive  in,  turn  about,  and  drive  out  again. 
Here,  in  1765,  with  thirty-five  blowers  in  his  employ, 
Stiegel  began  to  produce  the  beautiful  glass  that  is  now 
so  deservedly  and  so  highly  prized  by  all  collectors  and 
connoisseurs.  The  improved  product  won  quick  recog- 
nition, and  the  new  venture  proved  a  lucrative  success, 
bringing  the  "baron"  an  income  of  £5000  per  annum. 
A  ready  market  was  found  for  all  the  output  of  Man- 
heim  glass  in  Philadelphia,  New  York,  'Boston,  Balti- 
more, Lancaster,  and  York.  In  Boston,  especially,  the 
Stiegel  glass  w^as  highly  esteemed  and  much  sought  for, 
but  in  all  the  places  named  large  quantities  were  dis- 
posed of,  and,  even  now,  pieces  may  be  found  from 
time  to  time  in  the  neighbourhoods  of  its  greatest 
distribution. 

In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  its  manufacture  the 
field  has  been  pretty  thoroughly  scoured,  and  most  of 
the  possessors  of  such  pieces  as  remain  are  fully  aware 
of  its  value  and  hold  it  at  an  almost  prohibitive  figure. 
Nevertheless,  the  patient  and  persistent  collector  is 
occasionally  rewarded  by  a  find,  and  the  search  is 
always  well  worth  the  etfort  put  forth.  If  one  is  in- 
terested in  collecting  this  now  precious  product  of 
Colonial  craftsmanship,  which  is  constantly  becoming 
more  and  more  valuable,  it  is  a  wise  thing  to  scrutinise 
carefully   the   recesses   of   every   junk-shop   and   the 


EARLY  AMERICAN  GLASS 


47 


shelves  of  every  antique  dealer,  especially  in  the  places 
where  this  glass  once  enjoyed  wide  favour. 

In  addition  to  the  glass  for  personal,  decorative, 
and  table  use,  the  Manheim  factory  produced  an  ex- 
cellent quality  of  window  glass,  sheet  glass,  and  all 
manner  of  bottles  and  flasks.  Likewise  all  sorts  of 
glass  tubes  and  retorts  for  chemists  and  the  general 
requisites  for  laboratories  and  scientific  purposes  were 


Fig.  2.  A,  Cologne  Bottle  blown  in  patterned  mould,  early  nineteenth  century; 
B,  Double  Bottle,  early  nineteenth  century;  C,  Salt  Cellar,  early  nineteenth 
Century. 

Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

manufactured  in  large  quantities.  It  is  to  the  articles 
for  domestic  use,  however,  that  Stiegel  glass  chiefly 
owes  its  fame  (Fig.  2). 

The  list  of  these  articles  is  exceedingly  varied  and  in- 
cludes every  kind  of  drinking  glass — goblets,  tumblers, 
rummers,  flip  and  toddy  glasses,  wine-glasses  of  many 
patterns,  steins  and  mugs.  To  accompany  them  there 
were  high-shouldered  cordial  bottles,  decanters,  and 


48         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

pitchers  of  sundry  shapes  and  sizes.  'Besides  these, 
there  were  all  the  necessaries  for  table  equipment — salt 
cellars,  pepper  boxes,  cruets,  sugar  bowls,  creamers, 
finger  bowls,  vases  and  dishes,  big  and  little,  deep  and 
shallow.  For  personal  use  there  were  ink  wells,  scent 
bottles,  snuff  bottles,  and  even  small  toys  and  ornaments. 

All  these  objects  were  made  in  flint  glass — the  col- 
ourless or  "white"  glass — and  a  great  number  of  them 
were  also  produced  in  glass  of  different  colours.  A 
rich,  deep  blue  was  the  favourite  colour  employed,  but 
wine,  amethyst,  olive,  light  green,  and  deep  emerald 
green  were  also  largely  used.  Some  of  the  articles, 
too,  were  bi-coloured,  presenting  combinations  of  flint 
and  blue,  flint  and  amethyst,  and  blue  with  opaque 
white.  The  quality  of  the  flint  glass  is  exceptionally 
pure  and  beautiful,  while  the  coloured  pieces  possess 
an  evenness  and  opulence  of  hue  of  peculiar  ex- 
cellence. A  disting-uishing  feature  of  the  Stiegel 
glass  is  its  "high  structural  tension  and  resultant, 
bell-like  resonance  and  brittleness  characteristic  of  all 
early  flint  glass. ' '  Its  texture  is  universally  satisfying 
and  beautiful. 

For  decorative  effects,  besides  those  obtained  by 
the  use  of  a  coloured  body,  Stiegel  employed  the 
processes  of  engraving,  painting  with  enamel  colours, 
and,  for  some  of  the  wdne  glasses,  the  blowing  of  "cot- 
ton stems. ' '  A  good  many  of  the  articles,  too,  depended 
for  their  embellishment  upon  their  tastefully  moulded 
surfaces  of  "quilted"  or  other  designs,  the  condensed 
pattern  being  impressed  upon  them  in  a  small  pattern 
mould  prior  to  being  blown  by  hand  in  the  open  air. 
The  "cotton  stems"  were  so-called  because  of  the 
opaque,  white  spirals  contained  in  the  transparent 
flint  stems. 


EARLY  AMERICAN  GLASS  49 

The  engraved  glass  is  particuLarly  pleasing  in  its 
lightness  and  remarkable  brilliancy,  the  latter  quality 
being  seemingly  enhanced  by  the  presence  of  the  en- 
graved design.  The  patterns  of  the  engravings,  while 
occasionally  crude,  are  always  graceful  and  instinct 
with  vitality.  A  primitive  quality  of  design,  however, 
is  by  no  means  universal,  and  some  of  the  patterns  are 
of  the  most  charming  delicacy. 

Much  of  the  glass  painted  in  enamel  colours  quite 
rivals  the  Bavarian  glass  of  the  same  sort,  both  in 
design  and  execution.  The  favourite  colours  used  in 
the  decoration  of  the  Stiegel  glass  were  brilliant  reds, 
yellows,  blues,  and  white,  and,  under  the  direct  per- 
sonal inspiration  of  the  ''baron,"  his  workmen  achieved 
most  remarkable  results.  Besides  the  bandings  and 
little  decorative  motifs,  the  subjects  chosen  for  repre- 
sentation included  bold,  vigorous  leafage,  flowers,  birds, 
animals,  and,  occasionally,  houses  and  human  figiiresi 
were  attempted.  The  mug  in  one  of  the  illustrations 
shows  a  castle  with  its  turrets.  Many  of  the  conven- 
tionalised flowers  and  decorative  bands  are  extremely 
graceful,  and  the  lively  representations  of  parrots  and 
tulips,  always  favourite  motifs  among  the  Germans,  are 
highly  commendable. 

Stiegel's  career  as  a  glass  manufacturer  came  to 
an  end  when,  in  1774,  as  the  culmination  of  his  misfor- 
tunes, which  had  latterly  fallen  upon  him  in  close  suc- 
cession, he  w^as  imprisoned  for  debt.  But,  although  the 
making  of  Stiegel  glass  ceased  in  an  untimely  manner, 
the  impetus  had  been  given  and  a  high  standard  set, 
and  many  years  were  not  to  elapse  before  other  at- 
tempts were  made  in  other  places  to  improve  the  aver- 
age output  of  American  glass  works.    None  of  the  other 

4 


50         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

manufacturers,  however,  since  Stiegel's  day  has  ever 
achieved  such  charming  and  artistic  results,  full  of 
the  vitality  of  true  and  intelligent  craftsmanship. 

Stiegel's  subsequent  history  is  rather  obscure,  and 
what  we  do  know  of  it  is  sad.  He  eked  out  a  precarious 
existence  by  first  one  shift  and  then  another,  sometimes 
teaching  school  or  giving  music  lessons,  until  his  death 
in  broken-hearted  poverty. 

KINDS  OF  GLASS 

In  studying  the  history  of  early  American  glass 
manufacture,  there  are  two  varieties  of  glass  that  must 
be  considered — glass  with  lead  as  a  second  base,  and 
glass  with  lime  as  a  second  base.  The  former  is 
commonly  known  as  "flint"  glass,  while  the  second  is 
designated  as  "bottle"  glass,  "green"  glass,  or,  after  it 
has  been  made  colourless  by  the  use  of  manganese  and 
careful  processes  of  manufacture,  as  "crown"  glass. 

Glass  is  a  vitreous  fusion  or  compound  of  silica 
(usually  in  the  shape  of  sand)  and  at  least  two  alkaline 
bases,  one  of  them  being  some  form  of  either  soda  or 
potash  and  the  other  either  lime  or  else  an  oxide  of  lead, 
according  to  whether  "bottle,"  "green,"  or  "crown" 
glass,  on  the  one  hand,  is  desired,  or  "flint"  glass,  on 
the  other.  The  quality  of  the  resulting  glass  depends 
upon  the  purity  of  the  ingredients  entering  into  the 
composition.  The  coarse,  dark  glass  produced  by  some 
of  the  early  makers,  known  as  "black  metal,"  was 
composed  of  ingredients  with  many  impurities  in  them. 

"Green"  glass  of  a  light  sea-green  colour,  but  of 
good  quality,  was  the  first  product  of  American  makers 
before  Caspar  Wistar  entered  the  field.  Early  window 
glass  and  many  of  the  old  milk  pans,  bowls,  pitchers, 


j,^  :^%f , 


»C21r 


-yuM 


1  and  2.   Stiegel  Glass  Snuff  Bottle  and  MuK.  Multi-Colourcd  and  Enamelled.     3  and  4. 
htiegel  Glass  Tumbler  and  Mug,  Etched 
Courtesy  of  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York  City 


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EARLY  AMERICAN  GLASS  61 

mugs,  and  bottles  are  made  of  this  ''green"  glass  and 
are  beautiful  in  colour,  texture,  and  shape.  The  small 
air-bubbles  or  "tears"  very  often  seen  in  this  old 
"green"  glass  are  caused  by  insufficient  "cooking." 
It  takes  from  sixteen  to  thirty-six  hours  for  the  molten 
glass  to  cook  before  it  is  manipulated  and  either  blown 
or  moulded  into  its  destined  form.  During  the  cooking 
process,  impurities  rise  to  the  surface  and  are  skimmed 
off,  and  the  air-bubbles  are  thrown  off  at  the  same 
time.  Lead  glass  or  "flint"  glass  is  softer  than  glass 
with  a  lime  base,  and  is  therefore  better  adapted  to 
cutting,  engraving,  etching,  and  other  processes  of 
decorative  manipulation. 

ARTICLES  MADE 

Besides  the  staples  of  window  glass  and  bottles,  the 
following  articles  are  to  be  found  in  early  American 
glass :  beads,  milk  pans,  bowls,  mugs,  tumblers,  goblets, 
wine-glasses,  cordial  glasses,  decanters,  cordial  bottles, 
pitchers,  large  and  small,  finger  bowls,  sugar  bowls, 
vases  with  and  without  covers,  snuff  bottles,  drug 
bottles,  scent  bottles,  laboratory  equipments,  such  as 
tubes,  globes,  beakers,  and  flasks,  of  sundry  shapes, 
pocket  flasks  and  flasks  for  the  cabinet,  mustard  jars, 
flip  glasses,  rummers,  funnels,  carafes,  sweetmeat  jars,, 
creamers,  egg  glasses,  salt  cellars,  cruets,  toys,  jugs, 
compotes,  and  cup  plates — everything,  in  short,  that  we 
are  nowadays  accustomed  to  having  made  in  glass 
and  some  things,  besides,  for  which  we  generally  employ 
some  other  material. 

PATTERN  AND  METHODS  OF  DECORATION 

Up  to  a  certain  point  the  names  of  the  articles  in- 
dicate the  shapes  that  may  be  expected,  but  in  certain 


52         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

of  the  pitcher,  bottle,  decanter,  and  vase  forms,  espe- 
cially, the  nationality  of  the  craftsman  counted  for  much. 
For  instance,  we  find  many  of  the  articles  produced  at 
the  Wistarberg  factory,  where  expert  workmen  from 
Holland  were  first  employed,  showing  characteristically 
Dutch  square  and  squat  shapes,  with  bulbous  lines  in 
the  curves.  On  the  other  hand,  at  Manheim,  where 
many  skilled  workmen  from  'Bristol  were  employed,  we 
find  shapes  that  have  a  close  affinity  with  contemporary 
English  forms. 

While  speaking  of  form,  a  word  must  be  said,  in 


-y 


Fio.  3.    A,  Deep  Milk  Bowl  of  green  glass  made  at  Clark's  Glass  Factory,  Washington, 
D.  C.  c.  1837;     B,  Snuff  or  Drug  Bottle. 

Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

passing,  about  one  article  that  is  frequently  met  with  of 
such  an  unusual  shape  that  its  original  purpose  is  often 
a  puzzle.  This  is  the  milk  pan,  a  bowl-like  vessel  with 
flaring  sides  and  a  rim  with  a  flat  lip  or  spout.  Milk 
was  set  away  in  these  for  the  cream  to  rise.  They  are 
found  of  varying  sizes  and  of  different  depths.  Fig.  3 
shows  one  of  these  milk  pans  or  bowls. 

The  decorative  processes  employed  were  cutting, 
etching,  superimposing  partial  coatings  over  a  partly 
finished  body,  enamelling  in  colours,  and  pressing  in 
moulds.  Gilding  was  employed  to  a  very  slight  extent 
and  only  in  the  latter  years  of  the  Manheim  f actorj^ 


<< 


EARLY  AMERICAN  GLASS  53 

COLOUR 

Besides  the  *' black  metal"  and  the  light  sea-green 
green"  glass,  we  commonly  find  transparent  colour- 
less glass,  emerald  green,  deep  green,  turquoise  blue, 
both  opaque  and  transparent,  amber,  brown,  amethyst, 
reddish  purple,  and  opaque  white.  The  special  colours 
to  which  the  Wistarberg  and  Manheim  factories  were 
addicted  are  noticed  in  the  sections  devoted  to  those 
establishments. 

DECORATIVE  DEVICES 

The  decorative  devices  employed  for  the  ornamen- 
tation of  glass  include  the  following  that  are  most 
usually  met  with :  Waves  and  spirals  where  a  coating 
has  been  superimposed  upon  another  body;  diamond 
lattices,  depressed  ovals  and  circles,  parallel  spiral 
mouldings,  applied  mouldings,  flutings  and  reedings  in 
moulded  forms ;  lettering,  foliated  and  floriated  scrolls, 
flowers,  especially  tulips  and  fuchsias,  birds,  especially 
doves,  in  etched  or  engraved  glass,  and  likewise  geomet- 
rical hatchings ;  scrolls  of  leafage  and  sprays  of  flowers, 
human  figures,  animals,  birds,  ships,  houses,  trees, 
castles,  and  steeples,  along  with  lettered  scrolls  or 
ribbon  and  mottoes  in  the  enamel  painted  glass;  in  the 
glass  pressed  in  moulds,  such  as  the  later  bottles  and 
the  cup  plates,  geometrical  patterns,  trees,  medallions 
with  heads  and  representations  of  historical  scenes 
or  objects. 

The  study  of  early  American  glass  is  a  subj(H?t  that 
may  well  whet  the  curiosity  of  the  historical  student 
and  tlie  appetite  of  the  collector.  Specimens  of  it,  and 
excellent  specimens  at  that,  are  to  be  found  throughout 
the  older  parts  of  the  country.     AVhile  it  is  a  matter 


54         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

of  historical  record  that  great  quantities  of  the  Wistar 
and  Stiegel  glass  were  sold  in  certain  localities,  and 
while  there  is  an  especially  strong  likelihood  of  finding- 
bits  of  it  in  those  favoured  neighbourhoods,  the  glass 
produced  by  the  various  other  concerns  is  widely  dis- 
tributed, and  any  one  who  searches  for  it  is  almost  sure 
to  be  rewarded  with  a  find  worth  possessing.  Stiegel 
and  Wistar  glass,  too,  had  a  habit  of  wandering,  and 
one  can  never  tell  where  a  choice  piece  of  it  may 
turn  up.  In  obscure  parts  of  South  and  West  Jersey 
excellent  pieces  of  glass  now  and  again  come  to  light 
which  it  seems  reasonable  to  ascribe  to  the  works  at 
Wistarberg. 

Apart  from  all  antiquarian  interest  attaching  to 
the  subject,  there  is  a  deal  of  inspiration  to  be  derived 
by  those  who  would  revive  traditions  of  national  crafts- 
manship. While  the  manufacture  of  glass  on  a  large 
scale  necessitates  a  large  plant  and  adequate  financial 
backing,  there  are  some  craftsmen  who  have  essayed 
in  a  small  way  to  produce  glass  possessing  exceptional 
artistic  merit,  and,  in  their  own  way,  they  have  admir- 
ably succeeded.  It  would  be  well  worth  their  while, 
however,  to  study  past  American  achievements,  and 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  a  return  to  some  of  the 
old  forms  and  methods  of  decoration  would  meet  with 
an  enthusiastic  acceptance.  The  best  collections  of 
early  American  glass  are  to  be  found  in  Memorial  Hall 
(Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art), 
Philadelphia,  and  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art, 
New  York  City. 


CHAPTER  IV 

DECORATIVE  METAL-WORK:   IRON,  BRASS, 
COPPER,  LEAD,  AND  TIN 

A  JUNK-HEAP  is  a  pile  of  possibilities.  One  never 
can  teU  what  a  little  poking  and  grubbing  in  one 
^  of  them  may  reveal.  Ordinarily  we  do  not  asso- 
ciate the  ideas  of  art  or  antiquarian  research  with  heaps 
of  scrap  iron  or  other  old  metal,  and  yet  it  is  from  such 
scrap  heaps,  or  from  places  of  equal  lowliness  or  ob- 
scurity, that  many  of  the  specimens  have  come  that 
have  brought  to  our  acquaintance  several  crafts  of  no 
mean  merit  practised  in  Colonial  America,  crafts  that 
had  all  but  passed  into  utter  oblivion.  So  little,  indeed, 
do  people  in  general  know  or  realise  of  the  deftly  or 
curiously  cast  and  wrought  metal  objects  that  chance 
occasionally  brings  to  light,  or  of  the  circumstances  of 
their  making,  that  a  foreign  origin  is  more  often  than 
not  attributed  to  them,  when,  in  reality,  they  were 
fashioned  by  our  own  American  craftsmen. 

The  subject  of  early  American  decorative  metal 
work  may  be  divided  into  classifications  covering  what 
was  achieved  mth  the  follomng  metals:  iron,  brass, 
copper,  lead,  and  tin.  Silver  and  pewter  are  each  so 
important  that  they  require  separate  chapters. 

IRON 

Iron  was  both  cast  and  wrought  by  the  Colonial 
craftsmen  in  decorative  devices  and  patterns  of  greater 
or  less  elaboration  as  the  occasion  might  demand. 
These  two  methods  of  iron  working  must  be  kept  in 
mind  in  considering  the  work  of  the  moulder  or  the 

55 


56         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

smith.  Both  methods  were  practised  throughout  the 
extent  of  the  Colonies  almost  from  the  time  of  their 
first  settlement.  Cast  iron,  owing  to  the  process  by 
which  it  was  produced,  is  inflexible  and  brittle.  It 
cannot  be  bent,  but  breaks.  The  surface  of  old  cast 
iron  is  granular  or  smooth,  according  to  the  exposure 
to  which  it  has  been  subjected  or  the  wear  it  has  had. 
"Wrought  iron  is  pliable,  will  bend  easily,  and  is  apt  to 
show  slight  irregularities  on  the  surface  caused  by 
the  marks  of  the  smith's  hammer.  Iron  was  so  indis- 
pensable that  furnaces  were  among  the  earliest  estab- 
lishments of  industry,  and  the  smith  was  an  invaluable 
member  of  every  community.  Consequently,  the  in- 
terest attaching  to  the  achievements  of  the  blacksmith 
or  moulder  are  in  no  sense  local,  but  extend  to  every 
portion  of  the  older  States. 

Most  of  us  are  so  accustomed  to  taking  the  iron- 
work we  see  as  a  matter  of  course  that  comparatively 
few  stop  to  contemplate  the  niceties  of  craftsmanship 
unless  something  occurs  to  draw  our  attention  especi- 
ally to  them  in  individual  instances.  The  Colonial 
blacksmith,  therefore,  generally  suffers  at  our  hands 
the  same  lack  of  appreciation  as  does  his  modern  suc- 
cessor, and  yet,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  the  Colonial 
smith  was  a  far  more  capable  and  versatile  artisan. 
The  skill  that  some  of  them  showed  in  their  work  was 
truly  admirable,  and  a  few  of  the  inheritors  of  their 
tradition  of  thoroughness  have  remained  in  out-of-the- 
way  places  till  recent  times.  The  writers  well  remem- 
ber one  blacksmith  who  could  take  a  ten-cent  piece  and 
make  from  it  an  absolutely  perfect  miniature  horse- 
shoe, using  only  the  same  tools  he  worked  with,  day  in 
and  day  out,  in  shoeing  the  horses  brought  to  him  by 


IRON      ANDIRONS      WITH      BRASS       FINIALS, 

EARLVEIGHTEEXTH  CENTURY;  STEEL  TONGS. 

In  possession  of  Harold  D.  Eberlein,  Esq. 


WROUGHT  IKON  BALCONY   RAILING  FROM  WAREHOUSE  OF 
STEPHEN    GIRARD.   PHILADELPHIA 


DECORATIVE  METAL  WORK 


57 


the  neighbouring  farmers.  With  the  fresh  recollection 
of  such  a  feat  of  smithing  dexterity  on  the  part  of  one 
of  the  old-school  country  smiths,  it  becomes  easier  to 
understand  and  appreciate  the  excellence  of  much  of 
the  architectural  and  domestic  ironwork  of  the  Colonial 
and  post-Colonial  periods  and  feel  a  proper  pride  in 
it  as  an  American  production. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience  we  shall  discuss  the 
decorative  products  of  the  early  American  iron  worker 
under  the  heads  of  Architectural  Iromvork,  Domestic 
Utility  Ironwork,  and  Stoves  and  Firehacks. 


PiQ.  1.    Eighteenth  century  wrought  iron  Look. 
Collection  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hiatorical  Society. 

Architectural  Ironwork.  Under  the  head  of 
architectural  ironw^ork  must  be  included  hinges  of  all 
kinds,  knobs,  latches,  latch  grasps,  handles,  keys,  key 
plates,  locks  (Fig.  1),  bolts,  knockers,  gates,  railings, 
foot-scrapers,  weather-vanes  (Fig.  2),  and  tie  irons. 

Hinges  were  of  four  types — strap,  angle,  T,  and  H. 
All  of  them  were  wrought.  Strap  hinges  were  both 
short  and  long.  Sometimes  they  were  carried  across 
the  full  breadth  of  a  door  or  shutter.  The  expanse  of 
ironwork  offered  an  invitation  for  decorative  treatment. 
At  the  large  end,  strap  hinges  were  bent  round  into  an 
eye  to  fit  over  a  thumb  or  upright  pin  fastened  to  the 
door  or  window  frame.    Sometimes,  at  the  thumb-end, 


58         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

a  strap  hinge  was  divided  into  three  sections  and  the 
two  side  pieces  were  turned  outward  in  the  manner  of 
tendrils.  While  fulfilling  a  decorative  purpose,  this 
arrangement  also  supplied  a  reinforcement.  In  most 
cases,  however,  the  strap  hinge  was  a  single  strip  of 
metal  whose  small  end  was  peculiarly  susceptible  of 
ornamentation,  and  the  smiths  usually  took  advantage 
of  it.  The  commonest  form  of  termination  was  spear 
or  cusp-shaped,  single  or  triple,  but  numerous  other 
patterns  were  evolved,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the 
worker.  The  spear-shaped  ending  was  common  to  all 
the  English  Colonies.  Besides  this,  there  was  another 
shape  much  favoured  by  the  Dutch  smiths  of  New  York, 
North  Jersey,  and  Long  Island.  Near  the  eye  end  the 
hinge  was  hammered  out  into  a  circle.  The  angle,  the 
H  and  the  T  hinges  are  so  called  because  of  their  shape. 
Their  names  sufficiently  identify  them,  and  the  illus- 
tration shows  their  general  characteristics,  which  re- 
mained distinct,  notwithstanding  numerous  minor  and 
local  variations. 

Knobs,  latches,  latch  grasps,  and  handles  followed 
a  few  well-defined  types,  but  exhibited  minor  variations 
attributable  to  the  fancy  of  the  individual  worker.  All 
of  them,  however,  had  grace  of  proportion  and  evi- 
denced a  feeling  for  refinement  of  line  on  the  part  of 
the  craftsman.  "VVliile  speaking  of  handles,  attention 
should  be  directed  to  the  combined  handle  and  knocker 
to  be  found  on  many  of  the  divided  doors  of  Dutch 
New  York  and  New  Jersev. 

Key  plates,  keys,  bolts,  and  locks  (Fig.  1)  also 
furnished  inspiration  for  interesting  design.  They 
were  generally  simple  in  pattern,  but  very  often  bore 
some  little  grace  of  adornment  where  a  surface  or 


DECOR.\TIVE  METAL  WORK  59 

contour  admitted  of  its  legitimate  employment.  Many 
of  the  locks  and  keys  were  of  enormous  size  and  com- 
plex mechanism,  and  the  expanse  of  metal  really  de- 
manded amenity  of  design  and  workmanship. 

Knockers,  while  occasionally  of  unique  pattern,  were 
ordinarily  wrought  in  simple  but  graceful  shapes,  many 
of  which  were  afterwards  reproduced  in  brass. 

The  opportunity  afforded  for  decorative  treatment 
by  gates  and  railings  w^as  so  rich  and  varied  that  a 
whole  chapter  might  readily  be  devoted  to  this  subject 
alone.  Both  east  and  wrought  iron  entered  into  the 
composition  of  the  more  elaborate  creations  of  this  sort. 
Such  ironwork  is  scarcely  to  be  considered  an  object 
of  the  collector's  quest,  but  it  is  a  proper  object  for 
admiration  and  for  emulation  on  the  part  of  modern 
iron  workers.  The  desigiis  employed  were  character- 
ised by  refinement  and  ingenuity.  Inasmuch  as  this 
subdivision  of  the  subject  covers  such  a  wide  field 
territorially  and  in  point  of  varied  treatment,  we  can 
only  bid  the  reader  examine  carefully  all  the  old  gates 
and  railings  that  chance  presents  to  view.  An  abundant 
reward  of  interest  awaits  the  quest.  While  it  is  mani- 
festly impossible  to  discuss  individual  instances  of  rail- 
ing ironwork  at  length,  it  would  be  an  inexcusable  over- 
sight to  pass  on  mthout  calling  especial  attention  to 
the  several  specimens  illustrated.  The  railing  from  the 
balcony  on  the  front  of  an  old  warehouse  belonging  to 
Stephen  Girard,  on  Delaware  Avenue,  in  Philadelphia, 
is  of  wrought  iron.  The  other  example  is  partly 
wrought  and  partly  cast. 

Foot-scrapers,  fastened  into  blocks  of  stone  or 
marble  beside  doorsteps,  also  lent  themselves  to  inter- 
esting  manipulation.      They    were    both    simple   and 


60 


EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


ornate,  but  always  well  proportioned.  The  illustrations 
show  how  elaborately  all  these  articles  might  be  treated 
upon  occasion. 

Weather-vanes  as  an  object  of  embellishment  were 
not  neglected  by  the  Colonial  architects  and  the  smiths 
who  wrought  for  them.     In  addition  to  the  scrolls, 


Fie.  2.    Weather-vane,  wrougnt  iron,  from  the  mill  built  by  William   Penn,   Samuel 
Carpenter,  and  Caleb  Pusey,  at  Chester,  Pennsylvania,  1099. 

Collection  of  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society. 

tendrils,  or  other  ornaments  that  graced  the  stock,  it 
was  not  unusual  for  the  peak  to  bear  an  appropriate 
device — such,  for  instance,  as  the  mitre  on  the  vane  of 
Christ  Church,  Philadelphia,  or  the  heraldic  birds  sur- 
mounting the  vanes  on  the  turrets  of  Mulberry  Castle, 
in  South  Carolina.  In  the  vane  itself  the  initials  of 
the  master  of  the  house  or  the  date  of  its  building  were 


DECORATIVE  METAL  WORK 


61 


often  pierced :  witness  tlie  vane  at  Graeme  Park,  Ilor- 
sliam,  Pennsylvania  (see  ''Colonial  Homes  of  Phila- 
delphia and  Its  Neighbourhood,"  Eberlein  and  Lip- 
pincott),  or  the  vane  from  Samuel  Carpenter's  mill 
sho^vTi  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  2).  Then,  again,  the 
vane  was  not  infrequently  so  cut  that  the  pattern  of 
some  beast,  bird,  or  fish  would  be  silhouetted  against 
the  sky.  Oftentimes  the  vanes  and  the  stocks  sup- 
porting them,  as  well  as  any  accompanying  metal 
embellishments,  were  gilded  or  painted. 


Fig.  3.    Wafer  Irons.    Frishmuth   collection,    Pennsylvania    Museum   and  School  of 

Industrial  Art. 

Tie  irons,  used  to  brace  the  ends  of  beams  and  pull 
the  masonry  of  walls  in  toward  them,  were  the  subjects 
of  decorative  effort  in  many  cases.  Occasionally  they 
were  shaped  to  form  figures  indicating  the  date  of  a 
building's  erection  or  the  initials  of  the  o^^^ler.  Then, 
again,  they  were  sometimes  made  in  fanciful  devices. 

Domestic  Utility  Ieonwork.  Among  the  articles  in- 
cluded under  the  above  category  were  numbered  wafer 


62  EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

irons  (Fig.  3),  waffle  irons,  trivets,  gridirons,  lamps, 
tongs,  shovels,  andirons,  and  other  cooking  utensils  or 
fireplace  paraphernalia. 

The  wafer  irons  are  exceptionally  rich  in  interesting 
design.  The  flat  inner  surfaces  which  came  in  contact 
"with  the  wafer  were  fashioned  with  a  great  variety  of 
designs,  often  exceedingly  elaborate  in  character 
(Fig.  3).  These  designs  were  reproduced  in  relief  on 
the  baked  wafer. 

Trivets  of  more  or  less  intricate  pattern,  with 
pierced  foliation,  were  made  in  different  parts  of  the 
Colonies  and  lent  their  little  additional  note  of  charm 
to  the  fireside. 

Gridirons  and  other  cooking  utensils,  though  struc- 
turally of  the  utmost  simplicity,  were  often  given  a 
decorative  value  and  grace  by  making  the  handles  or 
some  of  the  bars  with  a  spiral  twist  and  turning  the 
ends  over  in  a  curve. 

Tongs  and  the  handles  of  hearth  shovels  were  nearly 
always  wrought  with  an  eye  to  pleasing  contour,  but 
the  andirons  were  the  articles  of  fireplace  equipment 
upon  which  the  smith  spent  his  best  efforts,  both  as 
regards  general  outline  and  the  shaping  of  such  details 
as  feet,  stocks,  and  finials.  Many  of  the  early  andirons, 
wrought  by  obscure  local  smiths,  possess  a  degree  of 
grace  that  some  of  their  more  pretentious  successors  in 
brass  have  failed  to  retain. 

Little  iron  lard-oil  lamps  and  the  so-called  ^'betty" 
lamps,  intended  to  hang  on  the  end  of  a  mantel  or  hook 
over  the  back  of  a  chair,  occasionally  bore  some  small 
ornament  on  tlie  handle  by  which  the  lid  was  lifted,  or 
on  the  shank  of  the  hook  by  which  the  lamp  itself 
was  suspended. 


Jmm»s>  "'■ 


S- 


•ww:^^^^- 


EIGHTEENTH   CEXTUKV    HINGES.   WHOlCiHT   IRON 
Frishmuth  Collection,  Pennsylvania   Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


•   %  ■' 


■w.:^v 


PENNSYLVANIA    GERMAN     CAST     IRON     STOVEPLATE; 

CAIN   AND   ABEL 

Courtesy  of  Henry  Chapman  Mercer,  Esq.,  Font  Hill,  Doyles- 

town,  Bucks,  Pennsylvania 


PENNSYLVANIA    GERMAN    CAST    IRON    STOVEPLATE    B5f 

JOHN  POTTS 

Courtesy  of  Henry  Chapman  Mercer,  Esq.,  Font  Hill,  Doylestown, 

Bucks,  Pennsylvania 


DECORATIVE  METAL  WORK 


63 


Then,  again,  very  graceful  hanging  lamps  or  Ian- 
thorns  with  glass  sides,  were  fashioned  of  wrought  iron. 
The  old  lamp  or  lanthorn,  shown  in  the  illustration 
(Fig.  4),  made  for  the  Philadelphia  Library  in  1731  and 
now  hanging  just  inside  the  entrance  of  the  present 
building,  is  an  excellent  example  of  this  type  of  lighting 
equipment  made  at  an  early  date. 

Stove  Plates  and  Firebacks.  Many  of  the  curious 
cast-iron  plates  that  come  to  light  now  and  again  were, 


Fig.  4.     Wrought  iron  Lanthorn. 
Courtesy  of  the  Library  Company  of  Philadelphia. 

for  a  long  time,  regarded  as  firebacks,  when,  in  truth, 
they  are  something  quite  different.  The  patient  in- 
vestigations and  assiduous  collecting  of  Henry  Chap- 
man Mercer,  Esq.,  to  whose  painstaking  antiquarian 
research  we  owe  much  in  other  fields  also,  have  iden- 
tified them  as  parts  of  the  old  five-plate  and  six-plate 
stoves  made  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

It  does  not,  at  first,  sound  very  promising  to  speak 
about  fragments  of  old  stoves,  and  yet  these  Colonial 


64         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

stove  plates  have  in  them  a  ' '  leaven  of  art ' '  that  invests 
them  with  unusual  interest.  Primitive  they  are,  to  be 
sure,  but  their  wide  variety  of  quaint  design,  the  naive 
conception  and  choice  of  subjects  thereon  depicted,  and 
their  dramatic  elemental  vigour  of  execution  render 
them  fascinating  as  an  ingenuous  expression  of  folk-art. 

Before  passing  to  a  discussion  of  the  individual  ex- 
amples illustrated,  it  is  necessary  to  tell  exactly  how 
these  ''iron  heirlooms"  of  Colonial  life  were  used  and 
in  what  condition  they  were  latterly  discovered.  Those 
that  had  not  found  their  way  to  the  scrap  heap  of  the 
junk  dealer — thousands  of  them,  doubtless,  have  gone 
thence  to  be  melted  and  recast  in  some  other  form — had 
been  '' abandoned  to  rust  and  weather,  as  pavings  for 
fireplaces,  smoke-houses,  and  bake-ovens,  as  the  sluices 
of  dams  and  the  bridges  of  gutters, "  or  a  score  of  other 
purposes  for  which  they  were  not  originally  intended. 
The  vicissitudes  through  which  they  have  passed  will 
explain  their  frequently  battered  and  corroded  condi- 
tion, which  is  occasionally  so  bad  that  the  device  and  its 
accompanying  inscription  are  well-nigh  indecipherable. 

These  plates  are  all  approximately  two  feet  square 
— some  are  slightly  more  and  some  are  less — and  five 
of  them,  clamped  together,  formed  what  has  been  called 
a  "jamb  stove."  It  consisted  of  a  simple  box,  made  of 
these  plates,  built  into  a  chimney  jamb  or  the  back  of  a 
fireplace  and  protruding  into  the  room  it  was  intended 
to  warm  on  the  other  side  of  the  wall  into  which  the  fire- 
place was  built.  Hot,  glowing  embers  were  shovelled 
into  this  box  from  the  fireplace  and  allowed  to  smoulder 
there  so  long  as  there  was  any  heat  in  them.  Then  they 
were  scraped  out  and  others  put  in  their  place.  The 
only  opening  from  this  five-plated  box  was  in  the  fire- 


DECORATIVE  METAL  WORK  65 

place,  whence  the  embers  were  shovelled  in.  There  was 
no  aperture  of  any  kind  in  the  room  to  be  warmed  where 
this  box-like  contrivance,  projecting  from  the  wall  back 
of  the  fireplace  in  the  adjoining  room,  was  fully  visible. 
It  became  so  hot  from  its  smouldering  contents  that  it 
must  have  proved  a  fairly  effectual  radiator.  The  top 
and  bottom  plates  were  plain,  while  the  two  side  plates 
and  the  end  plate  were  embellished  with  elaborate  and 
varied  cast  devices.  The  broad  bevel  at  one  side  of 
many  of  these  shows  where  they  were  built  into  the 
masonry  of  the  wall,  and  it  is  therefore  an  easy  matter 
to  tell  whether  they  were  made  for  the  right  or  left  side 
of  the  stove.  The  end  plate,  which  was  clamped  on  to 
the  two  side  plates,  had  only  a  rim  and  no  broad  bevel. 
Sometimes  the  end  farthest  from  the  wall  had  the  ad- 
ditional support  of  two  stout  legs.  Such  was  the  struc- 
ture of  the  five-plate  or  *'jamb"  stove.  The  six-plate 
stove,  which  was  introduced  slightly  later,  stood  out 
in  the  room,  had  a  stovepipe  and  a  fuel  door  and  draught 
opening  at  one  end,  but  was  intended  solely  for  heating 
and  not  for  baking  or  cooking  purposes. 

From  about  1740  to  1760  these  stove  plates  were  cast 
in  great  number,  and  this  was  the  period  of  the  best 
design.  After  that  time  there  was  a  distinct  deteriora- 
tion in  the  character  of  ornamentation  employed  until, 
with  the  introduction  and  growing  popularity  of  the 
'* ten-plate"  stove,  all  decorative  inspiration  withered 
and  the  cast  embellishments  descended  to  a  low  stage  of 
commercial  conventionality  utterly  devoid  of  any  sug- 
gestion of  craftsmanship  or  individual  feeling. 

The  decorated  stove  plates  were  cast  at  the  old 
furnaces  in  Pennsylvania  and  possibly  also  in  New 
Jersey  and  other  Colonies,  but  of  the  Pennsylvania 
5 


66         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

plates  we  have  the  fullest  and  most  certain  knowledge. 
They  were  made  chiefly  at  Durham,  Warwick,  and 
Elizabeth  furnaces,  the  last-named  establishment  being 
operated  by  ''Baron"  Stiegel,  whose  glass-making  at 
Manheim  forms  the  subject  of  a  part  of  the  chapter  on 
"Early  American  Glass."  The  best  plates,  however, 
came  from  Durham  and  Warwick,  for  "Baron"  Stiegel 
did  not  begin  their  manufacture  until  the  period  of 
decadence  had  set  in.  The  casting  was  done  in  open 
sand  and  the  moulds  were  made  of  wood,  or,  perhaps, 
in  some  instances,  of  stucco  or  glued  clay. 

Quite  apart,  however,  from  all  antiquarian  interest 
attaching  to  the  structure  and  manufacture  of  these 
early  five-plate  or  "jamb"  stoves,  the  decorative  craft 
brought  to  bear  in  their  making  was  a  most  important 
consideration,  and  it  is  just  there  that  our  present  con- 
cern chiefly  lies.  The  designs  chosen  for  their  adorn- 
ment were  scriptural,  legendary,  or  symbolic,  and  were 
expressed  with  a  striking  degree  of  vigour  or  a  refresh- 
ingly quaint  decorative  sense,  as  the  illustrations  show. 

The  patterns  of  the  earliest  plates  were  executed 
with  bold,  incisive  drawing  and  a  clear-cut,  free  sim- 
plicity that  is  exceedingly  impressive  and  well  calcu- 
lated to  drive  home  the  dramatic  force  or  moral  import 
of  the  incident  pourtrayed,  the  legendary  significance 
of  the  folk-lore  allusion,  or  the  mystic  symbolism  of 
the  conventionalised  motifs.  In  lieu  of  reading  matter, 
w^hich  was  not  abundant,  these  cast  designs,  conspicu- 
ously and  frequently  presented  to  the  eye,  performed 
a  valuable  service  in  the  way  of  both  education  for  the 
young  and  diversion  for  their  elders.  One  of  these 
plates,  dated  1741,  depicts  the  death  of  Abel  at  the 
hands  of  his  insanely  jealous  and  envious  brother. 


LV     ^^      '"•  '    '' 


JOSEPH    AND   POTIPHAKV-   W  IFK 


WKUDIXG   SCENE 
PENNSYLVANIA    GERMAN  CAST  IRON  STOVEPLATES 
Courtesy  of  Henry  Chiiprnan  Morcor,  Esq.,  Font  Hill,  Doylcstown, 
Bucks,  Pcnn.sylvuniu 


PENNSYLVANIA    GERMAN    CAST    IRON    STOVEPLATE    BY 

"BARON"    STIEGEL 

Courtesy  of  Henry  Chapman  Mercer,  Esq.,  Font  Hill,  Doylestown, 

Bucks,  Pennsylvania 


PENNSYLVANIA  GERMAN    CAftT    IKON    STOVEPLATE    BY    "BARON* 

STIEGEL 
Courtesy  of   Henry   Chapman   Mercer,   Esq.,   Font   Hill,   Doylestown,   Bucks, 

Pennsylvania 


DECORATIVE  METAL  WORK  67 

Beneath  a  classic,  festooned  arcade,  with  the  trees  and 
vines  of  Eden  in  tlie  background,  like  the  setting  of  a 
stage,  are  the  figures  of  the  brothers  in  low  but  clear 
relief,  costumed,  curiously  enough,  in  a  garb  that 
strongly  resembles  the  dress  of  the  Scottish  high- 
landers.  Burly,  brawny,  bare-armed  Cain  stands  with 
bludgeon  uplifted  and  just  about  to  bring  it  do\\Ti  on 
the  pate  of  pudgy  little  Abel,  who  stands  before  his 
infuriated  relative  with  hands  deprecatingly  outspread. 
Underneath  is  the  legend,  ''Cain  Seinen  Bruter  Aivcl 
tot  Selling,"  which  might  be  rather  literally  and  force- 
fully, though  somewhat  colloquially,  translated,  ''Cain 
slugged  his  brother  Abel  dead,"  for  the  unmistakably 
violent  action  conveyed  in  the  spirited  drawing  of  this 
scene  of  fraternal  infelicity  seems  to  require  the  use  of 
the  word  ''slugged"  rather  than  "struck."  It  will  be 
noticed  in  these  Pennsylvania  stove  plates  that  the 
inscriptions  are  often  either  partly  or  wholly  in  the 
peculiar  local  dialect  form  of  the  "Pennsylvania 
Dutch,"  and  that  abbreviations  and  phonetic  spelling 
are  also  indulged  in.  The  Cain  and  Abel  plate  is  in  an 
excellent  state  of  preservation,  as  it  was  discovered 
unharmed  in  its  original  position. 

Another  early  plate,  dated  1749,  sets  forth  the  en- 
counter between  Joseph  and  Potiphar's  wife.  Mrs. 
Potiphar,  with  an  air  of  grim  and  vixenish  determina- 
tion, has  seized  the  mantle  of  chubby-cheeked  Joseph, 
who,  to  judge  from  the  direction  in  which  his  feet  are 
turned,  is  makhig  a  bee-line  to  escape  from  the  clutches 
of  his  resolute  temptress.  Were  it  not  for  the  attitude 
of  his  feet,  it  would  be  hard  to  say  whether  the  ex- 
pression on  his  flabby  visage  is  indicative  of  amusement 
or  extreme  sadness.    The  rough-and-ready  and,  withal. 


68         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

tremendously  direct  conception  and  pourtrayal  of 
scriptural  scenes  and  personages  on  these  plates  are 
quite  comparable  in  point  of  unconscious  humour  with 
the  treatment  of  some  of  the  figures  in  medieval 
painted  glass. 

Still  another  plate,  undated  but  of  unquestionably 
early  manufacture,  shows  a  wedding  scene  and  aifords 
an  insight  into  the  manners  and  costume  of  the  time  in 
which  it  was  cast.  Under  draped  arches  springing  from 
fluted  columns,  a  portly,  bewigged,  and  begowned  par- 
son stands  in  a  high,  canopied  wine-glass  pulpit,  about 
to  join  in  matrimony  the  bride  and  groom,  who  ap- 
proach from  open  doors  at  opposite  sides  of  the  church. 
The  groom,  also  rejoicing  in  a  curled  wig,  cuts  an 
impressive  figure  in  his  long  coat.  The  bride,  a  dumpy 
little  creature,  tightly  grasping  a  nosegay  in  her  fist, 
looks  much  like  a  veritable  Mother  Bunch  or  a  pen- 
wiper in  her  full-tucked  double  cloak.  It  is  worth  noting 
that  all  the  figures  in  these  early  plates  present  a 
sing-ularly  comfortable,  well-fed  appearance.  Beneath 
the  wedding  scene  is  an  inscription  in  Pennsylvania 
German  which,  being  done  into  English,  says,  "Let  him 
who  will  only  laugh  at  this,  make  it  better;  many  can 
find  fault,  but  the  real  fun  is  to  do  better. ' ' 

A  fourth  plate  of  the  early  period,  dated  1747,  is 
rather  cryptic  at  first  glance.  Close  inspection,  how- 
ever, shows  that  it  is  not  one  of  the  dramatic,  descrip- 
tive, or  symbolic  pieces,  but  is  purely  admonitory  in 
character.  The  whole  treatment  is  just  about  as  archaic 
as  it  could  iDossibly  be.  The  entire  base  of  the  plate  is 
taken  up  with  the  legend,  "Jesus  aher  Sprach  zu  Ihm 
iver  seine  Hand  an  den  Pflufj  legd  iind  seht  zurilch  der 
ist  nicht  geschickt  sum  Reich  Gottes,  Lc.  A.  9"  (And 


DECORATIVE  METAL  WORK  69 

Jesus  said  unto  him,  no  man  having  put  his  hand  to  the 
plough,  and  looking  back,  is  fit  for  the  Kingdom  of  God. 
Luke,  ch.  9) .  This  scriptural  quotation  supplies  us  with 
a  clew  to  the  meaning  of  the  picture.  At  the  left, 
beneath  the  cactus-like  trees  with  the  fluted  trunk,  is  a 
plough  which  the  ploughman,  unfit  for  the  Kingdom  of 
Heaven,  has  incontinentl}"  deserted.  The  presence  of 
the  field  to  be  ploughed  is  indicated  by  the  gigantic 
weeds — or,  perhaps,  they  are  stalks  of  rye  to  be  turned 
under — and  the  sun  is  radiantly  shining  at  the  left,  in 
close  proximity  to  the  conventional  frilled  curtain  that 
seems  to  have  been  introduced  at  the  north-east  corner 
for  the  sake  of  architectural  amenity.  What  the  large 
circular  device,  like  an  aureoled  star-fish  or  an  old- 
fashioned  pink-iced  gingerbread  disc,  may  be,  it  is 
Impossible  to  say. 

The  plate  dated  1751  and  bearing  the  cross  and  tulip 
desigii  immediately  beneath  the  crown  of  each  arch  is 
one  of  the  symbolic  sort  upon  which  some  religious  sen- 
timent w^as  often  inscribed,  and  is  very  similar  in  the 
general  character  of  the  composition  to  the  Stiegel  plate 
dated  1758.  Tulips  and  hearts  were  always  favourite 
motifs,  and  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  same  craftsman 
may  have  made  the  moulds  from  which  both  these  plates 
were  cast.  In  all  of  them,  whether  of  early  or  late  date, 
there  is  a  strong  leaning  towards  the  employment  of 
architectural  forms  of  ornament. 

These  stove  plates,  made  and  used  in  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century  by  the  Pennsylvania  Germans, 
are  amusing  for  their  very  primitive  tone  and  child-like 
simplicity,  but  they  are  more  than  that,  and  any  one 
who  sees  nought  but  the  humorous  side  of  them  misses 
their  true  significance.    Along  with  the  art  of  fra-ctur 


70         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

and  the  making  of  slip-decorated  pottery,  they  form  one 
more  link  in  the  chain  that  bound  the  peasant  crafts- 
manship of  the  Rhine  countries  with  the  craftsmanship 
of  the  immigrants  in  the  New  World.  All  of  these  crafts 
were  direct  survivals  on  American  soil  of  institutions 
that  were  deeply  rooted  in  mediaeval  German  character, 
and  all  of  the  articles  made  by  the  Pennsylvania 
German  colonists  had  their  prototypes  and  precedents 
in  similar  articles  made  in  the  Old  World. 

BRASS 

The  casting  of  brass  was  an  industry  or  craft  that 
American  artisans  did  not  engage  in,  to  any  appreciable 
extent,  until  a  comparatively  late  date ;  that  is  to  say, 
till  towards  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Prior  to  that  time  it  had  been  customary  to  depend  upon 
England  for  such  brass  articles  as  were  required. 

American  cast  pieces  having  a  decorative  value  in- 
cluded knockers,  candlesticks,  door  knobs,  furniture 
mounts,  warming  pan  lids,  and  buttons,  the  last  named 
being  in  great  demand.  The  making  of  brass  buttons, 
warranted  to  last  seven  years,  was,  as  we  have  seen  in 
the  foregoing  chapter,  a  source  of  very  considerable 
revenue  to  Caspar  Wistar  and  his  son  Richard,  of 
glass  fame. 

In  pattern  the  American-made  knockers  closely  fol- 
lowed patterns  that  had  previously  been  made  in  iron 
or  the  patterns  of  brass  knockers  brought  out  from 
England,  so  that  it  can  scarcely  be  said  that  there  were 
any  distinctively  American  brass  knocker  designs.  It 
is  interesting  to  know,  however,  that  American  work- 
manship as  exhibited  in  the  making  of  knockers  was  in 
no  respect  inferior  to  that  of  the  imported  articles.  The 


DECORATIVE  METAL  WORK 


71 


same  is  true  in  a  general  way  of  candlesticks,  door 
knobs,  and  furniture  mounts.  The  more  elaborate  work 
seems  not  to  have  been  attempted. 

Warming  pan  lids  furnished  the  greatest  oppor- 
tunity for  the  brass  worker  to  display  his  skill  and 
inventive  powers  in  decoration.  Scrolls,  conventional 
designs,  oliage  and  flowers  of  all  sorts  were  chased  on 
the  top  surface  of  the  lids.  The  illustration  (Fig.  5) 
indicates  the  usual  style  followed 

COPPER 

The  coppersmith,  like  the  brasier,  found  his  chief 


Fig.  5.  Warming  Pan  with  copper  lid,  chased  decoration.     Eighteenth  century. 
Collection  of  the  Pennsylvauia  Historical  Society. 

field  for  decorative  expression  in  the  lids  of  warming 
pans,  which  were  made  in  copper  as  w^ell  as  in  brass. 
The  same  style  of  chased  work  was  employed  for  their 
ornamentation. 

Sometimes  figures  were  cut  out  of  copper  in  sil- 
houette and  used  to  embellish  tin  sconces  and  simihir 
objects  (see  Fig.  S,  A). 

LEAD 

Lead  has  never  been  as  popular  a  medium  for  deco- 
rative moulding  in  America  as  it  has  in  England.  Nev- 
ertheless, examples  of  good  lead  work  by  American 
artisans  are  not  wanting.    As  in  England,  rain-water 


72 


EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


heads  for  dowai  pipes  gave  an  opportunity  for  the  dis- 
play of  good  craftsmanship  in  lead.  Eagles,  foliage, 
dates,  and  other  devices  were  cast  in  the  outer  surface 
of  the  box-like  head.  The  rain-water  head  bearing  an 
open  book,  shown  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  6),  was  cast 
for  the  old  building  of  the  Philadelphia  Library,  at 
Fifth  and  Library  Streets,  Philadelphia,  in  1790. 

The  clasped  hands  (Fig.  7,  ^)  and  the  tree  (Fig.  7,  A), 


Fig.  6.  Leaden  Rain-water  Head  made  for  the  old  building  of  the  Philadelphia  Library 

in  Library  Street. 

Collection  of  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society. 

mounted  on  wooden  shields  and  attached  as  badges  to 
the  fronts  of  eighteenth-century  Philadelphia  houses 
(the  custom  was  continued  well  into  the  nineteenth 
century)  by  the  two  old  fire  insurance  companies,  the 
Contributionship  and  the  Mutual  Assurance  (see  "The 
Colonial  Homes  of  Philadelphia  and  Its  Neighbour- 
hood," Eberlein  and  Lippincott,  pages  33-35),  were 
cast  in  lead  and  then  painted. 

Lead  was  also  occasionally  used  for  casting  the  fine 


DECORATIVE  METAL  WORK 


73 


detail — swags  and  drops  or  urns  and  similar  forms — to 
be  applied  to  the  frieze  of  cornices  on  houses  designed 
in  the  Adam  style  of  late  Georgian  work. 


TIN 


Not  a  few  well-fashioned  articles  of  household  utility 
were  made  of  tin  and  decorated  in  various  ways.    The 


Fio.  7.  A,  Leaden  Insurance  Badge  of  the  Mutual  Assurance  Company,  Philadel- 
phia; B,  Leaden  Insurance  Badge  of  the  Contributionship,  Philadelpliia,  the  first  fire 
insurance  company  in  America. 

Collection  of  the  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society. 

tin  articles  of  most  frequent  occurrence  are  sconces 
(Fig.  8,  A  and  B),  candle  boxes,  candlesticks,  lanthorns, 
sand  shakers,  candle  moulds,  foot- warmers,  tea-caddies, 
bread  trays,  and  small  tin  boxes  for  sundiy  purposes. 
Sconces  of  the  simplest  decorative  form  were  made 
with  their  edges  pressed  into  scallops  (Fig.  8,  B). 
Sometimes  a  species  of  simple  embossing  or  repousse 
work  was  effected  by  hammering.     Again,  docoi-ntivo 


74 


EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


devices  were  achieved  by  punch-work,  the  punch  either 
piercing  all  the  way  through  the  metal  or  else  merely 
indenting  it.  One  example  illustrated  (Fig.  8,  A)  shows 
tlie  application  of  a  silhouetted  copper  device  to  enhance 
the  etfect  of  the  tin  by  contrast  in  colour.  Yet  other  tin 
sconces  with  a  painted  decoration  were  japanned. 

Candle  boxes,  made  to  hang  in  farm-house  kitchens, 


Fia.  8.    A,  Tin  Sconce  with  copper  circle  at  top,  central  tulip  device  punched.     From 
an  old  church  in  Pennsylvania  ;    B,  Tin  Sconce  with  scalloped  edge. 

Friahmuth  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

were  often  made  cylindrical  in  shape  and  decorated 
with  perforated  or  punched  work  designs. 

Lanthorns,  both  circular  and  square,  with  conical 
top  and  a  ring  handle  to  carry  them  by,  were  decorated 
with  a  punched  design,  the  numerous  small  holes  per- 
mitting the  light  from  the  candle  to  stream  through. 
The  more  holes  there  were,  the  more  light  the  lanthorn 
gave.    The  makers  made  a  virtue  of  necessity  and  dis- 


DECORATIVE  METAL  WORK 


75 


posed  the  many  punctures  in  ingeniously  ornamental 
patterns.  The  illustration  (Fig.  9)  will  give  some  idea 
of  the  character  of  the  method  pursued. 

Sand  shakers,  if  decorated,  were  painted  in  the 
manner  referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  *' Decorative 
Painting. ' ' 

Foot-warmers  were  intended  to  hold  hot  coals  or 
heated  bricks   and  stones,  which  radiated  suflicient 


'.".-yi 


fi>°  p'^  «  0  (I  Dlt 


Fig.  9.    Punched  work  Tin  Lanthorn  with  conical  top.    Eighteenth  century. 
Frishmuth  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

warmth  to  comfort  those  using  them  on  long,  cold  rides 
or  during  the  services  in  icy  churches  and  meeting- 
houses. Like  lanthorns,  the  more  holes  they  had,  the 
the  better  they  were  and  the  freer  the  radiation  of  heat. 
The  holes  were  punched  in  decorative  patterns.  The 
tin  box  body  of  the  foot-warmer  was  contained  in  a 
wooden  framework  with  turned  spindles  at  the  corners, 
and  there  was  usually  a  wire  handle  to  carry  it  by. 


76  EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

The  tea-caddies,  bread  trays,  and  little  boxes  of 
divers  shapes  and  sizes  were  ordinarily  adorned  with 
painted  designs.  The  style  of  this  painted  decoration 
is  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  ''Decorative  Painting." 

In  parts  of  Pennsylvania,  tin  tea  and  coffee  pots  and 
some  other  pieces  of  hollow- ware  were  occasionally  dec- 
orated with  engraved  or  scratched  patterns  that  sug- 
gest, in  their  design,  the  "wriggled"  decorations  on 
pewter. 

There  is  not  a  single  phase  of  the  early  American 
metal  work,  whether  it  be  in  iron,  brass,  copper,  lead, 
or  tin,  that  is  not  pregnant  with  meaning  for  both  the 
collector  and  the  craftsman  with  a  desire  to  revive  what 
is  good  in  the  work  of  the  eighteenth-  and  early  nine- 
teenth-century artisans. 

The  collector  finds  before  him  a  field  that  has  not 
been  depleted  by  diligent  search  as  have  some  others, 
and  the  field  is  co -extensive  with  all  the  older  settled 
parts  of  the  country.  The  increasing  interest  in 
Americana  has  added  materially  to  the  scope  and 
volume  of  the  collections  in  our  different  museums,  and 
even  such  cities  as  Milwaukee — where  there  is  a  par- 
ticularly excellent  collection — far  removed  from  the 
habitat  of  the  early  colonists,  have  creditable  showings 
of  the  products  of  eighteenth-century  American  crafts- 
manship. All  of  these  collections  are  worthy  of  close 
study  and  have  stimulated  an  intelligent  and  wide- 
spread interest.  Many  of  the  smaller  objects,  which  it 
is  possible  to  turn  up  with  a  little  search,  are  still  as 
suitable  for  household  employment  as  they  ever  were 
and  thus  possess  a  genuine  decorative  value  quite  apart 
from  their  role  as  curiosities  o|  a  bygone  generation. 

The  study  of  the  early  ironwork,  in  particular,  has  a 


Ay^ 


1,  2  and  4,  Brass  Candlesticks  of  Eighteenth  Century,  Amcric^an  Make;  '.i.  Iron  Ciindlestick  of 
EiKhteenth  Century,  Anieriran  Make;  .5,  Early  EiRhteenth  Century  Ainprican  Punched  Tin  Foot- 
warmer;  6,  7,  S  and  9,  Eighteenth  and  Early  Nineteenth  Century  Anierirnn  Brass  Door  Knockers 
Frishmuth  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


DECORATIVE  METAL  WORK  77 

very  iDractical  and  applicable  value  over  and  above 
whatever  the  individual  craftsman  may  be  inspired  by 
it  to  do,  for  it  is  furnishing  patterns  to  architects  for 
reproduction  in  buildings  of  our  own  day,  both  in  the 
matter  of  hardware  and  exterior  ornamentation. 

The  possibilities  of  an  intelligent  revival  of  lead- 
work  are  also  beginning  to  awaken  consideration.  As 
to  the  smaller  objects  made  of  tin,  decorators  have 
found  them  so  useful  in  filling  a  long-felt  want  that 
they  are  being  reproduced,  and  the  old  style  of  painted 
decoration,  also,  is  being  attempted  with  varying  de- 
grees of  success.  It  may  be  said  in  this  connexion  that 
the  most  successful  tin  decorators  are  those  that  are 
most  familiar  with  the  old  methods  and  patterns.  This 
does  not  imply  the  desirability  of  copying,  but  it  does 
imply  the  necessity  of  understanding  the  old  spirit, 
which  had  the  merit  of  being  consistent  and  appro- 
priate in  its  manifestations  with  regard  to  both  style 
and  medium. 

Metal-work  has  occupied  a  humble  place  in  the  col- 
lector 's  purview,  but  it  is  rich  in  worth,  and  the  appre- 
ciation now  awakened  will  go  far  to  improve  desigii 
in  the  making  of  modern  objects  in  those  same  ma- 
terials. Perhaps  the  banal,  commercialised,  and  often 
positively  ugly  forms  of  the  articles  usually  made  now- 
adays in  the  metals  discussed  in  this  chapter  have  been 
largely  responsible  for  our  past  attitude  of  indifference 
or  contempt. 

Excellent  collections  of  Colonial  metal-work  are  to 
be  found  in  the  Pennsylvania  Museum  of  Industrial 
Art,  Philadelphia;  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art, 
New  York  City;  the  'Boston  ]\fuReum  of  Art,  Boston, 
and  the  Milwaukee  ^Museum,  Milwaukee. 


CHAPTER  V 

EARLY    AMERICAN    DECORATIVE    NEEDLE- 
CRAFT 

OUR  Colonial  f oremotliers  were  paragons  of  com- 
I  patency.  One  of  the  most  important  particu- 
lars wherein  this  manifold  capability  was 
everywhere  noticeable  was  their  marvellous  proficiency 
in  needlecraft.  For  any  woman,  rich  or  poor,  to  lack 
skill  with  her  needle  or  neatness  in  her  work  was  held 
to  be  cause  for  shame  and  rebuke. 

Admirable,  however,  as  were  the  utilitarian  per- 
formances in  Colonial  needlework,  essays  in  the  field 
of  embroidery  and  ornamental  lettering  were  quite  as 
remarkable  in  their  way,  and  are  of  immediate  interest 
to  us  from  considerations  of  decorative  craftsmanship. 
Thanks  to  their  universal  skill  with  the  needle,  the 
women  of  the  Colonial  and  post-Colonial  periods  were 
able  to  derive  from  an  accomplishment  that  is  apt  to 
be  more  stressed  in  its  homely  utilitarian  aspect  a  valu- 
able decorative  resource,  and  to  supply  thereby,  with 
their  own  handiwork,  a  general  deficiency  in  mural 
adornment  and  small  household  embellishments. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  collector,  the  social 
historian,  and  the  reviver  of  domestic  crafts  alike,  the 
achievements  of  decorative  needlework  make  an  appeal 
for  consideration  not  local  but  universal  in  scope  and 
affecting  every  part  of  the  country  with  equal  force. 
Wherever  fresh  settlements  were  planted  by  the  newly 
come  immigrants,  thither  the  women  of  the  colony 
brought  with  them  the  common  heritage  of  stitchery 
lore  that  had  formed  an  essential  part  of  feminine 
education  in  the  Old-World  lands  of  their  birth.     It 

78 


DECORATIVE  NEEDLECRAFT  79 

was  as  much  a  matter  of  course  for  them  to  engage 
in  the  decorative  manifestations  of  needlecraft,  so  far 
as  the  arduous  duties  of  life  in  an  untamed  wilderness 
allowed  them  leisure,  as  it  was  for  them  to  make  cloth- 
ing for  themselves  and  their  families  Besides  that,  the 
practice  of  decorative  stitchery,  however  simple  or 
limited  in  extent,  afforded  a  legitimate  channel  for  the 
necessary  and  natural  expression  of  creative  instinct, 
a  subject  to  which  allusion  was  made  in  the  introductory 
chapter,  and  added  a  wholesome  and  cherished  object 
of  interest  in  narrow  lives. 

The  heritage  of  stitchery  lore  brought  overseas  by 
the  first  women  colonists  was  perpetuated  by  their 
daughters  and  granddaughters,  and,  as  leisure  and 
affluence  increased  with  easier  conditions  of  existence, 
more  extensive  and  more  elaborate  application  was 
made  of  it.  Just  as  the  colonists,  directly  the  first 
rigours  of  settlement  were  past  and  a  little  wealth  began 
to  accumulate,  were  punctilious  that  their  attire  should 
correspond  in  pattern  with  the  modes  in  vogue  in  the 
Mother  Country,  so  also  were  the  women  careful  to 
learn  and  keep  pace  with  current  European  fashions 
in  the  art  of  needlework.  What  were  the  range  and 
variety  of  the  seventeenth-century  English  needle- 
workers'  repertoire  of  stitches  may,  to  some  extent, 
be  gathered  from  the  following  lines  of  the  poet  John 
Taylor,  written  in  1640 : 

For  tent  worke,  raised  worke,  first  worke,  laid  worke,  net  worke, 

Most  curious  purl,  or  rare  Italian  cut  worke, 

Fire,  feme  stich,  finny  stitch,  new  stitch,  chain  stitcli. 

Brave  bred  stitch,  fisher  stitch,  Irish  stitch,  and  Queen  stitch, 

The  Spanish  stitch,  Rosemary  stitch,  and  mowle  stitch, 

Tiie  smartin<^  whip  stitch,  back  stitch,  and  cross  stitch; 

All  these  are  good,  and  this  we  must  allow, 

And  they  are  everywhere  in  practice  now. 


80  EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Add  to  this  brave  array  of  stitches  petit  point,  gros 
point,  and  a  few  more  that  "were  everywhere  in  prac- 
tice, ' '  and  one  will  hav^  a  fair  idea  of  the  diversity  of 
resources  open  to  the  proficient  needlewoman.  That 
some  of  the  women  who  crossed  the  Atlantic  to  the 
American  wilderness  to  make  their  homes  were  highly 
skilled  in  the  art  of  needlecraft  is  a  matter  of  his- 
torical record,  and  the  samplers  they  brought  with  them 
are  still  in  existence  to  attest  the  fact.  Thus  we  may 
see  that,  from  the  very  first,  the  practice  of  fine  stitchery 
had  a  good  start  upon  American  soil. 

So  indispensable  was  skill  in  the  finer  branches  of 
needlework  considered,  all  during  the  eighteenth  and 
the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  that,  in  a  great 
number  of  cases,  girls  were  not  left  to  pick  up  at  home 
what  proficiency  they  could,  but  were  sent  to  instruc- 
tresses who  conducted  schools  for  the  express  purpose. 
Advertisements  in  the  newspapers  of  the  period  bear 
witness  to  the  prevalence  of  professional  instruction  in 
the  niceties  of  embroidery  and  kindred  subjects,  and  in 
some  of  the  ' '  young  ladies '  finishing  schools ' '  advanced 
needlework  was  the  chief  item  of  the  curriculum.  The 
following  incident  will  serve  to  show  the  importance 
attached  to  aptitude  with  the  needle  as  a  dominant 
feature  in  feminine  education.  One  illustration  shows 
an  embroidered  picture,  worked  by  a  maiden  of  Salem, 
in  West  Jersey,  in  17 — .  She  had  been  sent  to  Phila- 
delphia to  receive  the  ' '  finishing  touches ' '  and  spent  a 
year  in  the  metropolis.  As  the  result  of  her  year's 
training  she  brought  back  the  embroidered  picture.  It 
was  a  diploma  that  spoke  for  itself  and  by  visible  evi- 
dence substantially  attested  the  reason  for  giving  it. 

When    referring    to    early    American    decorative 


DECORATIVE  NEEDLECRAFT  81 

needlecraft,  one  is  too  apt  to  have  in  mind  only  the 
samplers  that  our  grandmothers  and  great-gmnd- 
mothers  worked  as  children,  and  to  forget  the  embroid- 
ered pictures,  the  sprays  of  flowers  and  leaves  with 
perching  birds,  wrought  on  a  white  satin  background, 
the  mirror  tops,  the  fire-screens  and  chair  seats,  the 
purses,  bags  and  needlecases,  and,  finally,  the  sundry 
articles  of  clothing,  for  both  women  and  men,  embel- 
lished with  fine  embroidery.  All  of  these  articles  were 
duly  appreciated  and  cherished  by  the  generations  that 
made  them,  and  bequeathed  as  valued  possessions,  de- 
serving of  specific  mention  in  wills  and  inventories. 
Many  an  embroidered  skirt  or  waistcoat  was  handed 
dowm  from  one  possessor  to  another  and  treasured  by 
each  owner  in  turn.  When  the  frock  or  other  piece  of 
apparel,  for  which  the  embroidery  was  an  embellish- 
ment, wore  out,  as  often  as  not  the  embroidery  was 
removed  and  put  to  some  new  decorative  use.  Thus 
the  panels  of  the  white  altar  frontal  in  St.  Peter's 
Church,  Philadelphia,  are  made  from  the  embroidered 
satin  wedding  gown  of  one  of  the  former  members  of 
the  parish.  The  embroidery  was  exquisitely  wrought, 
but  the  gown,  a  treasured  heirloom,  was  falling  to 
pieces,  and  it  was  deemed  that  no  better  or  more  pious 
use  could  be  made  of  the  embroidery  than  by  converting 
it  into  part  of  an  altar  antependium. 

Inasmuch  as  the  phases  of  early  American  decora- 
tive needlecraft  were  so  many  and  so  varied,  it  will 
conduce  to  a  clear  and  orderly  understanding  of  the 
subject  if  we  observe  certain  classifications  rather  than 
attempt  an  unclassified  discussion.  The  most  natural 
divisions  will  be  as  follows :  Samplers^  Pictorial  Em- 
broidery, Patchivork,  Quilting  and  Emhroidenj  for  the 
6 


82  EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Enrichment  of  Personal  Attire  and  Domestic  Articles 
of  utility  or  adornment.  The  last  class  covers  a  wide 
field  of  needlework  activity,  embracing  even  the  mark- 
ing of  household  linen  and  clothing.  All  of  these  sorts 
of  needlework  were  universally  and  concurrently  prac- 
tised throughout  the  extent  of  the  land. 

SAMPLERS 

A  sampler,  as  its  name  denotes,  was  an  example 
both  of  the  repertoire  of  stitches  to  be  used  and  of  the 
worker's  mastery  of  them.  It  was  also,  to  some  extent, 
an  example  of  the  worker's  command  of  design  and 
lettering,  the  latter  an  important  item  of  stitchery  as 
well  as  the  former,  since  personal  and  household 
linen  had  to  be  appropriately  marked  with  initials 
and  numbers. 

The  well-spring  of  English  tradition,  whence  came 
the  immediate  inspiration  and  precedent  for  early 
xAmerican  needlecraft,  is  in  itself  of  singular  interest. 
As  early  as  Tudor  times,  embroidered  pictures  were 
executed,  wrought  at  first  in  emulation  of  tapestrj^,  and 
in  the  Stuart  period  they  appeared  in  considerable 
number  and  with  a  degree  of  variety  that  adds  appre- 
ciably to  the  fascination  of  their  study.  These  tapestry 
pictures,  in  point  of  date,  precede  the  earliest  samplers 
of  which  there  are  any  remaining  specimens. 

The  sampler  did  not  spring  into  being  as  a  fully 
developed  creation.  Like  most  other  things,  it  under- 
went a  course  of  evolution,  and  the  steps  of  this  evolu- 
tionary process  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  trace  briefly. 
The  sampler  is  unquestionably  of  great  antiquity,  and 
numerous  allusions  in  contemporary  literature  show 
that  it  occupied  a  well-recognised  position  in  the  realm 


PICTORIAL   SAMPLER    WRCH  GHT    BY    ANNA    TUWNBEND    UF 

NEW   HAVEX,   17. 
Courtesy  of  James  M.  Townsend,  Esq.,  New  York  City 


EMLRUIDLULD    I'lCTLKE,   A    TE.STI.MoN  LAL   Ol'   ACCi;Ml'LL<ll- 

MEXT    IN    STITCIIERY 

Courtesy  of  Mr.  James  Curran,  Philadelpliia 


EMBROIDERED  AND  LACE- 
TRIMMED  PENNSYLVANIA 
GERI\LAN  TOWEL  COVER,  EARLY 
NINETEENTH  CENTURY 

Courtesy  of  Metropolitan   Museum 
of  Art,  New  York  City 


EMBROIDERED      PENNSYL- 
VANIA    GERMAN     TOWEL 
COVER,  NINETEENTH 
CENTURY 

Courtesy  of  John  C.  Nippes,  Esq., 
Haddonfield,  New  Jersey 


DECORATIVE  NEEDLECRAFT  83 

of  needlework  for  centuries  before  the  date  to  which 
the  oldest  existing  specimens  can  be  ascribed.  But, 
although  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  sampler's  exist- 
ence and  popularity  prior  to  that  period,  there  seems 
to  be,  curiously  enough,  an  absolute  lack  of  examples 
before  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  In  nearly  eveiy  case  the  seventeenth-century 
sampler  was  a  marvel  of  needle  dexterity  and  was 
worked  in  sundry  decorative  patterns  and  in  tlie 
various  stitches  that  were  habitually  employed  in  the 
embroidered  pictures,  settee  and  chair  covers,  bed  hang- 
ings, or  any  of  the  divers  other  pieces  of  stitched  house- 
hold or  clothing  embellishment.  In  most  cases  it  con- 
tained excellent  specimens  of  drawn  w^ork,  also.  Being 
intended  for  drawm-^vork  patterns  as  well  as  for  the 
display  of  embroidery  designs,  its  body  or  groundwork 
was  of  stout  linen,  and  this  fact  partly  accounts  for  the 
good  state  of  preservation  of  the  specimens  that  have 
escaped  loss  or  absolute  destruction. 

The  seventeenth-century  sampler  was  long  and  nar- 
row, as  compared  with  the  shape  common  at  a  later 
period,  being  about  a  quarter  of  a  yard  wide  and  over 
a  yard  in  lenglh.  It  could  be  rolled  up  as  it  was  worked, 
to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  worker,  and  could  also 
be  put  away  in  that  form,  for  reference,  if  desired.  Its 
purpose  seems  to  have  been  ]n-imarily  utilitarian  and 
not  ornamental,  "consisting  originally  of  odds  and  ends 
of  decorative  design,  both  for  embroidery  and  lace- 
work,  scattered  without  any  order  over  the  surface" 
or  else  worked  across  the  breadth  in  horizontal  courses, 
so  that  it  was  evidently  intended  as  a  collection  of  pat- 
terns and  stitches  that  could  be  adapted  and  applied  to 
the  decoration  of  specific  objects  of  apparel  or  house- 


84         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

hold  equipment  as  occasion  might  require.  It  was,  in 
the  strictest  sense,  a  sampler  or  example  to  be  referred 
to,  and  was  presumably  worked  by  women  who  had 
reached  a  point  of  discrimination  and  skill  at  which  they 
needed  and  could  use  intelligently  such  a  set  of  frag- 
mentary suggestions  in  elaborating  a  finished  scheme 
of  embroidery  design. 

The  samplers  of  this  description  known  to  have  been 
brought  from  England  to  America  by  the  early  colo- 
nists, alluded  to  in  the  fore  part  of  this  chapter,  were 
three  in  number.  No  doubt  there  were  others,  too,  but 
it  will  suffice  to  mention  three,  because  their  record  is 
so  clear.  The  earliest  is  that  of  Anne  Gower,  first  wife 
of  Governour  Endicott,  and  is  now  preserved  in  the 
Essex  Institute,  at  Salem,  Massachusetts.  Governour 
Endicott 's  wife  went  to  Salem  in  1628  and  died  the  next 
year,  so  that  the  sampler  must  have  been  worked  some- 
what prior  to  that  time.  The  second  is  in  the  collection 
in  Pilgrim  Hall,  Plymouth,  and  was  worked  by  Lora 
Standish,  daughter  of  Miles  Standish.  The  third  is 
dated  1654  and  bears  the  names  of  Miles  and  Abigail 
Fleetwood.  Judging  from  the  appearance  of  the  names 
of  both  husband  and  wife,  it  was  presumably  worked  at 
some  time  subsequent  to  their  marriage. 

Towards  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
texts  and  verses  began  to  occupy  an  increasingly  prom- 
inent place  in  the  composition  of  the  sampler  until,  in 
the  course  of  general  decadence,  the  decorative  devices 
— they  were,  be  it  remembered,  detached  and  unrelated 
specimens  of  motifs  to  be  employed  on  such  pieces  of 
work  as  chair  and  settee  covers,  bed  hangings,  window 
draperies,  or  articles  of  clothing  and  personal  use — 
were  gradually  supplanted  and  the  sampler  became 


DECORATIVE  NEEDLECRAFT  85 

virtually  a  vehicle  for  the  display  of  lettering  and 
numerals,  usually  done  in  cross-stitch.  Nearly  all  the 
old  variety  and  deftness  of  stitchery  disappeared,  as 
did  also  the  drawn-work  patterns.  With  this  prefatory 
explanation  of  the  seventeenth-century  sampler  in  mind 
and  its  position  as  an  antecedent  to  the  more  familiar 
form  numerously  represented  by  eighteenth-century 
American  specimens,  we  may  address  ourselves  to  a 
more  particular  discussion  of  the  sampler's  develop- 
ment in  the  Colonies.  Seventeenth-century  samplers 
are  rare  and  precious  in  England,  but  ten  times  more 
so  in  America. 

We  have  said  that  the  sampler  was  both  a  study  of 
designs  and  stitches  for  extended  reproduction  and,  at 
the  same  time,  a  specimen  of  the  worker's  command  of 
design  and  skill  in  lettering.  It  was,  indeed,  both  of 
these,  but  the  first  aspect  was  the  really  important  and 
essential  one  during  the  seventeenth  century,  while  the 
second  was  emphasised  during  the  eighteenth  century 
and  subsequently — so  much  so,  in  fact,  that  the  original 
intention  was  ultimately  lost  sight  of  altogether.  The 
transition  from  one  phase  to  the  other,  though  gradual 
and  evolutionary,  was  none  the  less  complete  and  sig- 
nificant. At  one  end  of  the  scale  w^e  see  the  sampler  a 
potential  example  of  what  could  be  done ;  at  the  other 
we  see  it  a  specimen  of  what  the  individual  worker  could 
do.  In  the  former  instance  it  stood  in  the  place  of  a  pat- 
tern book  for  reference,  to  be  used  by  the  skilled  worker 
in  applying  her  prowess  with  the  needle  to  mature  crea- 
tive work ;  in  the  latter  it  was,  for  the  most  part,  merely 
a  record  of  comparatively  jejune  achievement  in  letter- 
ing or  indifferent,  and  sometimes  perfunctory^  applica- 
tion of  design,  often  wrought  by  a  child  of  tender  years. 


86    EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Close  akin  to  samplers  in  general  form,  decorative 
aspect,  and  method  of  stitchery  were  the  towel  covers 
of  the  eighteenth  century  and  fore  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth, Avronght  chiefly  by  Pennsylvania  German  women 
to  hang  over  the  common  towel  on  the  back  of  the 
kitchen  door  when  the  kitchen  was  put  to  rights  or 
arrayed  in  holiday  attire  against  the  expected  arrival 
of  "company."  These  towel  covers,  two  of  which  are 
shown  in  the  illustration,  were  usually  made  by  sewing 
two  or  more  small  linen  towels  together,  all  of  which 
were  duly  worked  in  cross-stitch  and  sampler-like 
devices. 

Purpose.  In  its  lowest  condition,  the  sampler  occu- 
pied a  position  analogous  to  that  of  a  child 's  copy-book 
at  school.  The  only  difference  was  that  letters  were 
written  in  one  with  pen  and  ink  and  worked  on  the  other 
with  needle  and  silk  or  yarn.  It  was  duly  recorded 
thereon  that  Ann,  Jane,  or  Maria  had  done  these  alpha- 
bets of  large  and  small  letters  and  these  numerals  at 
the  age  of  eight,  nine  or  ten  years.  If  Ann,  Jane,  or 
Maria  were  ambitious  or  their  preceptresses  urgent, 
they  might  dignify  their  work  with  a  stiff  little  border 
in  cross-stitch  or  with  some  unrelated  devices  scattered 
here  and  there  where  space  permitted.  The  clief 
d'ceuvre  was  then  framed  and  hung  up  as  an  exhibition 
trophy  of  the  state  of  proficiency  to  which  Ann,  Jane, 
or  Maria  had  advanced,  just  like  a  good  report  gained 
at  school  or  a  graduation  certificate.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances, although  the  colour  might  be  pleasing  and 
to  some  extent  diverting,  the  sampler  could  scarcely  be 
regarded  as  a  valuable  decorative  adjunct. 

In  their  better  form,  quite  as  numerously  repre- 
sented,  fortunately,   as   the  glorified   alphabets   and 


DECORATIVE  NEEDLECR.\FT        87 

numerals,  samplers  showed  a  degree  of  both  pictorial 
and  decorative  sense  on  the  jjart  of  their  makers.  Tlie 
decadence  in  both  pictorial  and  strictly  decorative 
needlework  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  centurv  in 
England  may,  in  part,  be  accounted  for  by  the  increas- 
ing abundance  of  domestic  and  imported  fabrics  of 
brilliant  colour  and  elaborate  pattern.  But  the  creative 
instinct  in  both  these  directions  could  not  be  wholly 
quenched,  despite  supplanting  elements  that  ministered 
to  much  the  same  needs.  As  it  was  in  England,  so  also 
was  it  in  America.  .Thejwomen  continned  to  work  pic^ 
tonal  and  decorative  deydces  on  samplers,  and,  in  con- 
sequence, we  have  all  grades  of  elaboration,  from  the 
unpretentious  alphabet  sampler  to  the  sampler  devoted 
chiefly  to  pictorial  or  decorative  motifs,  or  both  in  com- 
bination. Samplers  of  this  description  formed  the 
connecting  link  with  the  eighteenth-century  embroid- 
ered pictures  and  maps  and  the  little  silk  or  satin  panels 
adorned  with  birds  and  sprays  of  leaves,  flowers,  and 
fruit.  Indeed,  in  the  Colonies,  where  the  brilliant-hued 
and  intricately  patterned  woven  fabrics  were  com- 
paratively rare,  there  was  even  more  occasion  for  the 
decorative  sampler  and  more  incentive  to  work  it  than 
there  was  in  England.  Framed  and  hung  on  the  wall, 
it  both  served  its  utilitarian  end  as  a  stitch  pattern 
and  also  fulfilled  a  useful  decorative  purpose,  making 
up,  to  some  extent,  for  the  scarcity  of  pictures  or  other 
suitable  wall  adornment.  Our  present  concern  is  chiefly 
with  the  decorative  sampler,  and  the  ensuing  para- 
graphs deal  with  its  several  characteristics. 

Materials.  The  eighteenth-  and  nineteenth-century 
samplers  were  ordinarily  worked  on  rough  canvas, 
coarse  linen,  or  coarse  linen  crash.     The  letters  and 


88         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

devices  were  wrought  sometimes  in  silk,  sometimes  in 
woollen  yarn.  Cross-stitch  was  always  popular, 
although  many  other  stitches  also  were  employed. 
Usually,  the  shape  was  approximately  square  or  else 
oblong,  with  the  leng-th  slightly  greater  than  the  width. 
In  size  there  was  considerable  variation.  Some  of  the 
samplers,  especially  those  devoted  to  lettering  and 
numerals,  were  very  small,  being  only  about  eight  inches 
by  ten.  Others  were  as  much  as  twenty  inches  square 
or  even  larger. 

Colour.  In  colouring,  the  seventeenth-century 
samplers  were  rich  ^\ithout  being  garish,  and,  although 
bright  hues  were  used,  there  was  a  general  preference 
for  less  aggressive  tones,  with  a  strong  tendency  toward 
greens,  pinks,  and  blues  of  tender  shades. 

The  eighteenth  century  saw  a  changed  colour 
fashion,  which  the  sampler  workers  manifested  in  their 
predilection  for  vigorous,  insistent,  and  even  raw  reds, 
greens,  yellows,  and  blues  of  tones  that  were  frequently 
conflicting.  The  kaleidoscopic  effect  was  carried  into 
the  lettering  as  well  as  the  borders,  and  the  divers 
coloured  letters  in  one  short  word  often  gave  it  the 
appearance  of  a  veritable  Joseph's  coat. 

About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  strong 
reds  waned  in  popularity  and  quieter  schemes,  in  which 
blacks,  greens,  yellows,  and  blues  predominated,  be- 
came the  fashion. 

Design.  "While  the  element  of  deliberate  composi- 
tion was  largely  lacking  in  the  seventeenth-century 
samplers,  because  they  were  primarily  of  utilitarian 
intent  as  a  record  of  designs  and  stitches  to  be  used  in 
other  work,  the  altered  conception  of  the  sampler  in  the 
eighteenth  century  made  the  question  of  composition 


EMBRuIDEKED  AND  PAINTED  PICTl  RE.  EIGHTEENTH  CEN  n  n\ 
Courtesv  of  Colonpl  William  J.  Youngs.  Garden  City,  Long  Island 


EARLY    NINETEENTH    CENTURY    EMBR<»IDERED    PlCTl  RE    HUH 

FLOWERED   BltRDER 
Courtesy  of  Mr.  James  Curran,  Philadelphia 


MULTI-COLOURED     EMBROIDERED      NIGHT     CAP     HOLDER, 
EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 
Courtesy  of  Colonel  William  J.  Youngs,  Garden  City,   Long  Island 


EMBROIDERED    POCKET-BOOK,    BOOK   COVER   AND    RETICULE,    EIGHTEENTH 

AND  EARLY  NINETEENTH  CENTURIES 

Frishmuth  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


WHITE   ALTAR  ANTEPENDIUM   OF   ST.    PETER'S   CHURCH,   PHILADELPHIA: 
MADE  FROM  THE  EMBROIDERED  WEDDING  GOWN  OF  A  FORMER 

PARISHIONER 

Courtesy  of  the  Rector  and  Vestry  of  St.  Peter's  Church,  Philadelphia 


DECORATIVE  NEEDLECRAFT  89 

a  matter  of  more  moment.  Even  the  samplers  devoted 
almost  entirely  to  lettering  and  numerals  were  arranged 
with  a  view  to  symmetrical  effect,  wliicli  was  generally 
increased  by  some  sort  of  border,  however  insignificant. 
In  the  samplers  where  lettering,  whether  in  the  form  of 
alphabets  or  inscriptions,  occupied  only  a  part  of  the 
space  and  there  was  ample  opportunity  for  the  display 
of  decorative  features,  composition  became  a  more 
obvious  factor,  involving  the  choice  of  motifs  and  the 
marshalling  of  design.  The  sampler  worker  employed 
a  wide  range  of  subjects  for  the  embellishment  of  her 
handiwork,  including  mottoes,  texts,  the  human  figure, 
architectural  features,  beasts,  birds,  flowers,  fruits, 
leaves,  tendrils,  and  divers  miscellaneous  subjects  of 
only  occasional  introduction. 

Inscriptions.  So  conspicuous  a  part  did  inscrip- 
tions play  in  the  samplers  of  the  eighteenth  and  early 
nineteenth  centuries  that  they  must  be  regarded  as  an 
essential  element  in  the  scheme  of  sampler  design.  They 
began  to  appear,  in  scattered  instances,  as  early  as  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  centurv,  but,  in  the  first  vears 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  fashion  had  become  uni- 
versal and  was  firmly  established.  The  inscription  was 
used  in  addition  to  the  almost  invariably  present  alpha- 
bet and  numerals.  Sometimes  it  was  merely  the  name 
of  the  worker,  with  her  age  and  the  date  of  tlie  sampler's 
completion.  Again,  at  the  other  extreme,  it  might  be 
the  Creed  or  the  Ten  Commandments  or  even  a  whole 
chapter  from  Scripture.  More  usually,  however,  it  took 
the  form  of  a  motto,  a  proverb,  or  a  Scripture  text  in- 
tended to  inculcate  in  the  mind  of  the  youthful  sampler 
worker  obedience  to  parents,  tlie  fear  of  God,  duty  to 
neighbours,  sobriety  of  conduct,  diligence  or  some  other 


90         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

religious  precept  or  maxim  of  prudent  behaviour. 
Occasionally  a  set  of  verses,  with  halting  metre  and  a 
plenitude  of  distressing  morbid  religiosity,  emphasised 
graphically  the  shortness  and  uncertainty  of  human 
life,  an  affected  longing  for  death,  the  fickleness  of 
friends,  the  falsity  and  vanity  of  human  nature,  or 
similar  reflections  of  equally  gruesome  or  misanthropic 
tone,  betraying  a  close  relationship  with  the  melancholic 
sentiments  so  commonly  carved  on  the  gravestones  of 
the  period.  Imagine  the  utter  incongruity  of  a  child 
of  only  eight  or  nine  spending  weary  hours  in  working 
with  her  needle  the  following  lugubrious  lines : 

Our  days,  alas!    our  mortal  days 
Are  short  and  wretched,  too. 
Evil  and  few  the  patriarch  says. 
And  well  the  patriarch  knew. 

In  his  admirable  book  on  samplers,  from  which  the 
foregoing  inscription  is  quoted,  Mr.  Huisli  gives  a 
number  of  other  examples  of  a  like  gloomy  tenour  from 
which  all  trace  or  suggestion  of  the  blithesomeness  or 
the  joy  of  living  is  conspicuously  and  remotely  absent. 
Less  depressing,  by  far,  are  the  verses  containing  moral 
reflections  upon  virtue,  happiness,  and  other  abstract 
qualities,  or  the  verses  commemorative  of  some  church 
festival,  some  historical  event,  or  cast  into  the  form 
of  prayers. 

While  sampler  inscriptions,  almost  without  excep- 
tion, were  distinctly  "moral  and  improving"  in  tone, 
those  that  were  replete  mth  unhealthy  and  dismal  self- 
introsj^ection  are  to  be  explained  by  the  spirit  of  the 
age — an  age  in  which  evangelicalism  was  rampant  and 
Methodism  took  its  rise ;  an  age  that  produced  Dr.  Isaac 
Watts 's  "Divine  and  Moral  Songs  for  Children,"  Wes- 


DECORATIVE  NEEDLECRAFT        91 

ley's  liymns,  and  the  effusions  of  Dr.  Philip  Doddridge; 
an  age  when  it  pleased  those  that  considered  themselves 
serious-minded  to  speak  pessimistically  and  despite- 
fully  of  themselves  and  their  fellows  as  "vile  earth  and 
miserably  clay"  or  as  ''very  worms  and  no  men," 
rather  than  to  contemplate  the  nobility  of  the  "human 
form  divine." 

The  HuMA^iT  Figure.  It  is  a  relief  to  turn  from  the 
subject-matter  of  the  sampler  inscriptions,  with  their 
often  uncomfortable  and  distorted  moral  attitude,  to 
the  examination  of  the  human  figaire  as  pourtrayed  by 
the  samplerist.  In  the  borders,  and  occasionally  else- 
where, in  samplers  of  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  stiff  little  figiires  now  and  then  appear  which 
seem  to  be  amorini  or  erotes  that  have  persisted  from  a 
seventeenth-century  motif.  Adam  and  Eve  are  seen 
again  and  again,  while  figures  clothed  in  contemporary 
costume  are  commonest  of  all.  Owing  to  the  limitations 
of  a  square  stitch  and  the  executant's  deficiencies  as  a 
limner,  the  figures  are  ordinarily  sho^^^l  from  a  front 
Adew,  with  heels  together  and  toes  pointed  in  opposite 
directions,  or  else  in  profile,  with  the  quaint  angularitj" 
observable  in  Egyptian  frescoes  or  the  warriors  of  the 
Bayeux  Tapestry.  One  rarely  finds  any  approximation 
to  accurate  drawing  or  perspective  such  as  were  to  be 
seen  in  the  seventeenth-century  English  tapestry  pic- 
tures and  a  few  of  the  samplers  of  the  same  date. 

Architectural  Features.  Houses,  buildings  that 
are  to  be  reckoned  as  houses  by  implication  and  courtesy 
of  imagination  rather  than  by  completeness  of  visible 
characteristics,  urns,  fountains,  vases,  and  other  motifs 
of  an  architectural  or  semi-architectural  nature  were 
chosen  for  sampler  embellishment  with  great  fre(iuency. 


92         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

They  formed  one  item  in  the  progress  towards  the  con- 
ception of  the  embroidered  picture  as  developed  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  These  sampler  houses  reflect  the 
architecture  of  the  period  and  are  ordinarily  accom- 
panied by  a  bit  of  landscape — a  tree  and  a  patch  of 
grass,  if  nothing  more — and  human  figures  or  animals. 
One  example  illustrated  both  shows  an  architectural 
motif  and  is  a  good  instance  of  the  sampler  that  occu- 
pies a  middle  ground  between  the  type,  on  the  one  hand, 
that  was  merely  lettered  and  figured,  with  perhaps  the 
amenity  of  a  floral  border,  and  the  wholly  pictorial 
representation,  on  the  other.  It  was  wrought  by  Anna 
TowTisend,  of  New  Haven,  "aged  12,"  in  1771,  and  is 
representative  of  a  fairly  numerous  class  of  departures 
from  the  lettered  and  bordered  talk  in  needlework,  and 
marks  an  illuminating  evolutionary  step  as  well  as  a 
rebellion  against  mere  utility.  Its  dual  character  satis- 
fied both  the  New  England  sense  of  duty  and  the  yearn- 
ing to  create  a  work  of  purely  decorative  value.  The 
laws  of  perspective  troubled  the  youthful  artist  not  at 
all,  and  neither  did  any  principles  of  comparative  pro- 
portions. What  she  saw  in  her  mind 's  eye  was  a  stately 
New  England  house  of  Georgian  type,  with  the  door 
flanked  by  two  windows  on  each  side,  and  that  she  very 
graphically  pourtrayed  with  considerable  dexterity  of 
stitchery  of  a  sort  not  usually  met  w^ith  in  samplers  of 
the  merely  lettered  and  figured  type.  The  people  in 
the  picture  doubtless  belong  in  some  way  to  the  house, 
but  Anna,  "aged  12,"  was  not  sufficiently  adroit  in  a 
dramatic  way  to  give  them  something  to  do  and  prevent 
them  from  being  a  bit  pokerish.  All  things  considered, 
the  sampler  is  pleasing  and  surely  does  credit  to  a  little 
girl  of  twelve — where  is  one  to-day  could  do  the  like? — • 


^iii^biimJi^iliS^ 


iH  ll.ThA)   AM)   PATCHWORK   BEDSPREAD.      PIECED   BEDSPREAD.     EARI  ^     NINE 

TEENTH   CEXTl RY 
Courtesy  of  John  C.  Xippes,  Esq.,  HaildonficUi,  New  Jersey 


iAAAAAAJA 


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QUILTED  AND  PATCHWORK  BEDSPREADS.      EARLY  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 

Courtesy  of  John  C.  Nippes,  Esq.,  Haddonfield,  New  Jersey 


DECORATIVE  NEEDLECRAFT  93 

but  it  is  a  sampler  and,  as  such,  marks  for  us,  with  its 
long  and  short  stitch  and  its  pictorial  aspect,  a  transi- 
tional influence  toward  work  of  purely  decorative  intent. 

Beasts  and  Birds.  Many  of  the  animals  and  birds 
that  figure  in  sampler  ornamentation  can  be  described 
only  as  *'just  animals  and  birds."  It  would  require  a 
broader  knowledge  of  natural  history  than  the  average 
person  possesses,  coupled  with  a  vivid  imagination,  to 
assign  definite  names  and  species  to  them.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  identity  of  not  a  few  of  tliem  is  quite  unmis- 
takable. Stags,  horses,  dogs,  rabbits,  sheep,  and  cows 
appear,  and  now  and  then  some  of  the  wilder  beasts  of 
the  forest  or  jungle  may  be  distinguished. 

Among  the  birds  we  may  readily  recognise  peacocks, 
doves,  swans,  parrots,  birds  of  Paradise,  jays,  and 
robins,  and  occasionally  the  characteristics  of  others. 

Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves.  What  was  said  of  the 
possibility  of  recognising  animals  and  birds  in  the 
samplers  applies  with  equal  force  to  flowers  and  fruits. 
Some  of  them  are  conventionalised  in  such  a  peculiarly 
original  manner  by  the  worker  that  they  defy  classifica- 
tion. The  decorative  effect,  however,  is  usually  good. 
Among  the  flowers  whose  names  can  be  definitely 
assigned  are  roses,  single  and  double,  conventionalised 
and  natural ;  pinks  or  carnations,  tulips,  asters,  thistles, 
fuchsias,  forget-me-nots,  liarebells,  and  morning  glories. 

The  fruits  that  can  be  named  are  the  strawberiy, 
apple,  currant,  pineapple,  and  grape. 

Of  trees,  we  can  readily  distinguish  the  pine,  the 
oak,  the  elm,  the  cedar  of  triangular  variety,  reminis- 
cent of  the  painted  trees  in  the  Noah's  Ark  sets  of  our 
childhood,  and  the  willow,  the  forerunner  of  the  AVash- 
ington  memorial  motifs  that  became  so  popular  early  in 
the  nineteenth  century. 


94         EARLY  AiMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Leaves,  among  which  the  clover  or  trefoil  may  be 
distinguished,  and  conventionalised  tendrils  played  a 
prominent  part  in  borders. 

Miscellaneous  Motifs.  Among  these,  sundry 
geometrical  patterns  were  of  frequent  occurrence. 
Maps,  also,  now  and  again  supplied  a  theme  for  the 
whole  surface  of  a  sampler.  They  also  formed  the  motif 
for  some  of  the  embroideries  on  silk  and  satin  which 
bek)ng  under  the  head  of  "Pictorial  Embroideries." 
Besides  these,  divers  other  subjects  appear  in  isolated 
instances,  according  to  the  inspiration  of  the  individual 
worker. 

PICTORIAL  e:\ieroidery 

We  come  now  to  the  embroidered  picture,  an  impor- 
tant and  conscious  effort  in  decorative  art  that  flour- 
ished in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and 
continued  over  into  the  nineteenth,  until  it  was  dis- 
placed from  favour  by  the  enormities  of  Victorian 
"fancy  work"  which  it  would  be  depressing  and 
unprofitable  to  discuss. 

Some  of  the  embroidered  pictures  are  really  objects 
of  beauty  as  well  as  eloquent  testimonials  to  consum- 
mate skill  in  needlecraft,  and  their  authors  took  a  just 
and  proper  pride  in  them,  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
careful  and  substantial  way  in  which  they  were  framed. 
For  the  better  exhibition  of  their  charms  they  were 
usually  surrounded  by  a  broad  margin  of  black  glass 
with  a  narrow,  gold-lined  edge. 

The  pictures — landscapes,  portraits,  maps,  pastoral 
scenes,  architectural  subjects ;  almost  anything,  in  fact, 
that  a  painter  would  essay  on  canvas — were  worked  in 


DECORATIVE  NEEDLECRAFT  95 

a  great  variety  of  stitches,  and  with  careful  gradations 
of  shading  and  colour,  on  bolting  cloth  or  silk,  canvas, 
crash,  or  satin.  Nor  did  their  makers  disdain  the  aid 
of  paint.  Faces,  hands,  feet,  legs,  arms,  and  distant 
parts  of  the  landscape,  as  well  as  skies,  were  often 
painted  on  the  silk  or  satin. 

In  "Euth  and  Boaz,"  wrouglit  in  Long  Island,  in 
17 — ,  by  Ann  Valentine,  the  background  is  of  bolting 
cloth  originally  white,  but  now  a  brownish  cream  from 
age.  Euth's  face,  arms,  hands,  and  feet  are  daintily 
painted,  while  her  hair  and  gorgeous  blue  robe  are  in- 
geniously embroidered.  Boaz's  face,  arms,  and  legs 
are  painted,  and  his  turban,  whiskers,  and  garment  are 
stitched.  The  trees  and  vegetation  in  the  foreground 
are  embroidered,  but  the  sky  and  distant  figures  are 
jDainted.  This  picture  well  exemplifies  the  combination 
of  paint  and  embroidery,  a  combination  not  at  all  un- 
usual in  about  equal  parts,  although  many  pictures 
were  wholly  embroidered,  without  depending  upon  the 
agency  of  paint.  In  ''Ruth  and  Boaz"  the  colouring, 
drawing,  and  execution  are  all  creditable,  and  it  has  a 
real  decorative  value  that  is  not  to  be  despised. 

Such  pictorial  embroidery  was  the  sort  taught  in 
the  finishing  schools  for  young  ladies,  and  great  store 
was  set  by  it  as  not  only  a  desirable  but  an  almost  indis- 
pensable accomplishment. 

Purpose.  These  embroidered  pictures  were  frankly 
decorative  in  their  purpose.  Allusion  has  previously 
been  made  to  the  comparative  scarcity  of  pictures  in 
the  majority  of  houses  of  the  Colonial  and  early  post- 
Colonial  periods,  and  these  pieces  of  elaborate  needle- 
work somewhat  supplied  the  want  for  chromatic  adorn- 
ment.   Furthermore,  they  may  be  regarded  as  diplomas 


96         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

stitchery,  testifying  in  a  very  real  way  to  the  skill  and 
taste  of  the  executants,  who,  with  the  members  of  their 
fond  families,  looked  upon  them  with  pardonable  pride. 

Materials.  Wliite  bolting  cloth — a  very  thin  silk — 
or  white  satin  usually  formed  the  groundwork  on  which 
these  pictures  were  wrought,  although  canvas  or  crash 
was  sometimes  used  instead.  The  Pennsylvania  Pas- 
toral Scene  is  thus  worked  on  a  coarse,  loose-woven 
canvas  and,  where  the  sky  is  painted  in,  the  meshes  of 
the  weave  are  ill-concealed.  Satin  or  bolting  cloth  made 
a  far  better  ground  for  paint. 

The  work  was  done  both  with  floss  silk  and  twisted 
silk,  and  a  close  examination  of  the  illustrations  will 
serve  to  show  what  a  diversity  of  stitches  was  employed. 

Colour.  The  workers  of  embroidered  pictures  ran 
the  full  scale  of  colours  in  their  work.  While  their 
colour  knowledge  was  not  always  profound,  and  while 
some  of  the  combinations  they  produced  can  hardly  be 
considered  happy  in  point  of  harmony  or  restfulness, 
in  the  long  run  their  management  of  tones  was  agree- 
able and,  in  some  cases,  showed  great  refinement  and 
charm.  There  was  a  general  preference  for  lively 
colours,  and  this  fondness,  now  and  then,  betrayed  a 
worker  into  crudities,  but,  in  the  main,  the  colour 
balance  was  good,  and  heavy,  garish  tones  in  harsh, 
revolting  combinations  were  not  common  until  the  in- 
roads of  Berlin  wool  had  gone  far  to  deprave  public 
colour  sense. 

Design.  The  subjects  treated  in  the  embroidered 
pictures  of  the  late  eighteenth  and  early  nineteenth 
centuries  were  varied  in  scope,  as  were  the  subjects 
chosen  by  painters  for  pourtrayal  on  canvas.  It  is  to 
be  noted,  however,  that  there  was  a  strong  bias  in 


DECORATIVE  NEEDLECRAFT  97 

favour  of  pastoral  themes.  When  the  subject  was  not 
actually  pastoral,  it  was  apt,  nevertheless,  to  have  a 
pastoral  flavour  about  it,  and  the  manners  of  the  Eng- 
lish eighteenth-century  school  of  painting  were  plainly 
reflected  in  the  general  tone  of  the  embroidered  pic- 
tures. Tamed  nisticity  with  a  bit  of  architecture  in- 
troduced as  a  foil  was  much  esteemed.  Tall,  languishing 
ladies  with  Gainsborough  hats  and  baskets  of  flowers 
or  shepherdesses  with  beribboned  crooks,  seated  on 
the  banks  of  purling  brooks,  were  highly  approved 
motifs. 

After  the  death  of  Washington,  there  was  a  veritable 
epidemic  of  embroidered  pictures  whose  central  feature 
was  a  monument  surmounted  by  a  cinerary  urn  or  else 
by  a  bust  of  the  Father  of  his  Country.  The  name 
''Washington"  was  duly  inscribed  on  the  shaft,  that 
there  might  be  no  mistaking  the  intent.  A  willowy  lady 
in  short-waisted  white  Empire  frock  was  either  placing 
a  laurel  wreath  on  the  bust  or  shedding  tears  upon  the 
urn.  Weeping  willows  were  the  conspicuous  features 
at  the  sides  or  in  the  background. 

The  drawing  was  usually  creditable,  and  this  is  to 
be  explained  by  the  fact  that,  in  many  instances,  ready 
prepared  designs,  kept  in  stock  by  the  purveyors  of 
embroidery  materials,  were  traced  or  pounced  upon  the 
satin,  silk,  or  bolting  cloth,  all  ready  to  be  filled  in  with 
stitch-work.  Even  the  shading  was  indicated.  Many 
of  the  cruder  pictures,  such  as  the  Pennsylvania  Pas- 
toral Scene,  were  evidently  altogether  designed  and 
executed  by  the  worker,  a  fact  that  will  explain  the 
peculiarities  of  perspective  and  scale  in  this  particular 
instance. 

The   pictures   were   done   both   with   and   without 

7 


98         EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

borders.    ^Vhen  borders  were  used,  floral  devices  were 
commonly  employed. 

PATCHWORK  AND  QUILTING 

Samplers  and  embroidered  pictures  are  to  be  reck- 
oned as  belonging  to  the  ornamental  rather  than  the 
utilitarian  province  of  decorative  needlecraft.  There 
ivas  a  thoroughly  utilitarian  province  of  decorative 
needlework,  and  it  included  quilting  and  the  making 
of  pieced  and  patchwork  bed  coverings.  The  working 
of  samplers  and  embroidered  pictures  was  more  or  less 
of  a  polite  accomplishment,  and,  however  desirable  it 
was  considered  and  however  commonly  practised,  it 
was  not  absolutely  essential  to  the  creature  comfort 
of  the  colonists.  The  making  of  bed  coverings,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  a  stern  necessity  and  universally  en- 
gaged in.  And  just  because  the  women  accepted  the 
necessity  and  added  a  genuine  touch  of  artistry  to  it, 
the  stitching  of  quilted  and  patchwork  bed  covers  is 
even  more  thoroughly  and  democratically  representa- 
tive of  folk-art  than  the  execution  of  the  purely  decora- 
tive samplers  and  silken  pictures. 

A  distinction  is  to  be  drawn  between  '' piecing"  and 
"patching."  A  ''pieced"  quilt  is  one  whose  whole 
surface  is  composed  of  contiguous  pieces  of  material,  of 
the  same  colour  or  of  various  colours,  stitched  together 
in  geometrical  or  random  patterns  and  then  quilted 
down.  A  "patched"  or  "patchwork"  quilt  is  one 
whose  surface  is  decorated  with  pieces  or  patches  of 
another  coloured  material  applied  or  applique  at  in- 
tervals so  that  its  pattern  is  silhouetted  on  the  back- 
ground. These  pieces  are  then  quilted  down  to  the 
body  of  the  quilt  and  the  lines  of  the  quilting  are  made 


QUILTED   CRIB    VAI.ANCE:    Tl  ITKD    BEDSPKKAD,    KKIHTKEMH    C  KM  IKY 
Frishmuth  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  Silmol  of  Industrial  Art 


DECORATIVE  NEEDLECRAFT  99 

to  enhance  the  design  created  by  the  applique.  Patch- 
work gave  more  play  for  originality  and  diversity  of 
decorative  treatment  than  did  piecing,  and  it  can  readily 
be  seen  how  wide  a  field  of  opportunity  such  a  method 
of  needlework  opened  to  the  worker.  Historically 
speaking,  quilted  patchwork  had  a  long  and  honourable 
past  and  abundant  precedents  in  many  of  the  gorgeous 
hangings  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Renaissance  which 
come  under  this  definition. 

Quilting  denotes  the  fastening  together  of  several 
layers  of  material  by  stitching  through  them.  The 
lines  of  the  stitching  may  be  as  numerous  as  desired, 
and  may  be  made  to  form  any  pattern,  according  to  the 
inclination  of  the  quilter.  Many  of  the  old  quilts,  of 
various  materials,  coarse  or  fine,  without  the  agency  of 
applique  patches,  are  marvels  of  beauty  and  dexterity. 
Table  covers,  frocks,  petticoats,  tester  valances,  and 
other  articles  were  subjects  for  intricate  quilted  em- 
bellishment as  well  as  bed  coverings. 

The  patterns  were  passed  from  one  woman  to 
another  and  were  kno^\^l  by  name,  just  as  were  the 
patterns  for  the  hand-woven  coverlets  treated  in  a  later 
chapter.  The  practice  of  making  quilts  was  universal 
and  continues  to  our  own  day  in  rural  districts  and  old- 
fashioned  places,  so  that  the  manifestation  of  this  phase 
of  folk-art,  with  all  its  traditions,  has  always  been  kept 
alive.  It  offers  untold  possibilities  for  further  decora- 
tive development. 

The  colour  and  pattern  of  the  old  patchwork  quilts 
were  often  admirable  and  evidenced  a  widespread 
native  intuition  of  fitness,  even  among  the  humblest, 
that  is  deserving  of  all  honour  and  appreciative  study. 


100       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

EMBROIDERY  FOR  THE  ENRICHMENT  OF  PERSONAL 
ATTIRE  AND  DOMESTIC  ARTICLES 

The  last  class  of  decorative  stitchery  to  be  consid- 
ered deserves  more  attention  than  it  usually  receives. 
Under  personal  attire  are  to  be  counted  the  skirts,  the 
bodices,  the  caps,  the  waistcoats,  and  the  coats  in  which 
our  forefathers  and  foremothers  arrayed  themselves  so 
bravely.  'Besides  these  larger  and  more  conspicuous 
articles,  there  were  the  many  little  objects  of  a  more  or 
less  personal  nature  and  use  that  they  were  wont  to 
ornament  with  embroidery.  Such  are  the  handker- 
chief holders,  portemonnaies,  reticules,  needlebooks, 
and  sundry  other  small  articles  of  a  similar  nature  upon 
the  embellishment  of  which  our  grandmothers  often 
lavished  considerable  time  and  pains.  A  little  search 
with  open  eyes  will  reveal  many  a  piece  of  such  deftly 
wrought  work,  sometimes  even  lying  forgotten  and  neg- 
lected in  trunks  or  chests  in  our  own  attic  because  we  did 
not  know  what  they  were  or  what  they  stood  for  in  old 
American  decorative  needlecraft.  The  nightcap  case 
or  handkerchief  holder — tradition  says  it  was  the 
former — shown  in  the  illustration  will  serve  to  show 
the  kind  of  work  one  may  expect  to  find  in  such  small 
articles  of  elegance.  The  object  in  question  is  closely 
worked  in  one  of  the  old  tapestry  picture  stitches  and  is 
brilliant  in  colour,  as  one  might  infer  from  the  char- 
acter of  the  design.  It  folds  over  three  or  four  times 
and  is  lined  with  red  silk.  When  closed,  it  is  about  the 
size  of  a  man's  bank-note  case. 

The  articles  of  domestic  utility  were  such  things  as 
fire-screens,  chair  seats,  book-covers,  and  numerous 
other  odds  and  ends  of  similar  character.  'Besides  tliese 
must  be  counted  the  less  ambitious  flights  of  pictorial 


DECORATIVE  NEEDLECRAFT  101 

embroidery,  such  as  the  floral  sprays,  birds,  and  butter- 
flies worked  on  panels  of  white  satin  and  framed. 
Fruits,  flowers,  leaves,  birds  with  gay  plumage,  and 
butterflies  with  dazzling  markings  are  all  depicted  with 
painstaking  verisimilitude  and  a  good  deal  of  stiffness. 
Both  the  accuracy  and  the  stiffness  are  the  same  one 
sees  in  the  old  coloured  plates  in  ornithological  books 
or  within  the  leaves  of  press  albums.  Notwithstanding 
their  rigidity,  however,  many  of  them  possess  great 
merit  as  pieces  of  embroidery,  and  they  have  a  distinct 
decorative  value  which  we  are  becoming  more  disposed 
to  recognise.  Tufting  or  knotting  and  the  execution  of 
drawn-work  as  well  as  simple  beaded  embroidery  are 
likewise  to  be  reckoned  in  the  tale  of  accomplishments 
in  which  many  needlewomen  of  the  Colonies  were  ex- 
pert. Other  white  work  in  great  variety  was  wrought 
with  cotton  on  linen  and  muslin,  and  metal  stamps  in- 
serted in  wood  blocks,  with  floral  and  other  designs, 
w^ere  used  for  stamping  the  outlines  to  be  filled  in  with 
stitchery. 

In  the  realm  of  decorative  needlecraft  in  all  its 
branches  the  collector  will  find  a  rich  field  for  explora- 
tion, a  field  that  is  co-extensive  with  the  whole  eastern 
portion  of  the  country,  the  South,  and  some  of  the 
middle  West.  The  craftsworker  may  find  therein 
abundant  inspiration  for  fresh  development  and 
adaptation  to  modern  needs  that  will  make  a  minute 
study  of  the  subject  well  worth  while. 


CHAPTER  VI 

SILVER ;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL 

OLD  silver  plate  is  the  most  fascinating,  perhaps, 
of  all  the  products  of  early  American  crafts- 
manship. Quite  apart  from  the  intrinsic  beauty 
and  grace  of  the  various  objects  themselves  and  their 
value  as  treasured  heirlooms,  as  most  of  them  are,  there 
is  attached  to  them  a  wealth  of  historic  association  on 
account  of  the  silversmiths  who  made  them  and  the 
part  these  worthy  craftsmen  played  in  the  affairs  of 
their  day  and  generation.  Thus,  indeed,  our  early  plate 
not  only  represents  the  cunning  handiwork  of  skillful 
artists  of  whom  any  age  and  country  might  well  be 
proud — there  is  nothing  primitive  about  the  character 
of  old  American  silver  as  there  was  about  some  of  our 
first  essays  in  other  fields — but  it  also  represents  the 
"personalities  of  men  who  gave  to  the  country  the  best 
they  possessed  in  the  form  of  service  to  Church  and 
State  and  thereby  assisted  in  the  gradual  moulding  and 
welding  together  of  the  various  integral  units  of 
Colonial  life  into  the  great  republic  of  which  we  are  so 
proud  and  whose  traditions  we  hold  so  dear." 

As  silversmithing  was  one  of  the  finest  crafts  prac- 
tised in  Colonial  America,  so  was  it  also  one  of  the 
earliest.  There  was  a  silversmith  in  Jamestown, 
Thomas  Howard  by  name,  whose  presence  there  in  1620 
is  recorded  in  the  register  of  the  Virginia  Company. 
Unfortunately  no  authenticated  pieces  of  his  workman- 
ship are  known.  In  the  other  Colonies,  too,  the  craft 
of  the  silversmith  received  substantial  encouragement 

102 


CHRONOLOGICAL  KEY  OF  SILVER 
CONTOURS 

This  Key  shows  characteristic  pieces  of  silver  in  the 
distinctive  styles  of  each  successive  period. 

In  using  the  Key,  note  carefully  the  shape  and  promi- 
nent characteristics  of  the  piece  to  he  identified  and  then 
look  for  those  characteristics  in  the  Ke}-  illustrations. 

Then  refer  to  the  text  of  Chapter  VI,  under  the  sub- 
head of  the  piece  in  question,  for  full  details. 


CHARACTERISTIC  CONTOURS  OF  FIRST  CHRONOLOGICAL  DIVISION,  c.  1650-c.  1730 

1  and  2,  Trifid  Handled  Spoons;  3  and  4,  Domed  and  Globular  Teapots;  5,  Tankard  with  Flat 
Drum  Cover  and  without  Midband;  6,  Tankard  with  Midband  and  Domed  Cover  with  Finial;  7, 
Beaker,  Flat  Bottom  and  Moulded  Base;  8,  Salt;  9,  Cup  with  Gadrooned  Bottom  and  Moulded  Base. 


CHAK.U  TERISTIC  CONTOURS  OF  SECOND  CHRo.\(  »H -CK  Al.  DIVISION,  c.  1730-c  1765 
1-7,  Tcii-Hpoons  and  Dessert-spoons  with  Handle  Turned  Up.  Moulded  Drop  on  Bowl,  with  or 
without  additional  Ornament,  Enjjravinii  and  Monoprains  on  Back  of  Head;  >>,  Pear-shnped  Tea- 
pot; '.»  and  10,  Tankards;  11,  Covered  Bowl;  12  and  13,  Crenni  Pitchcris;  14  and  15,  Mugs;  Iti,  Thrce- 
fegtied  .Salt. 


CHARACTERISTIC    CONTOURS    OF    TIIIKD    CH  li(  !N<  U.cc ;  1(  A  1,    DIVISION, 

c.  1765-c.  180U 
1-S,    Toa-spoons  and  Table-spoons   with    Handle   End   Turned  Dou'n,  "  Bright-cut " 
Engraving,   Moulded   Drops  on   Bowl,  with  or  without  additional  Ornament;  9,   Boat- 
shaped  Salt;   10,   11   and   12,   Tankards;   13,  Cream  Pitcher:   14,   Straight-sided  Teapot, 
"Bright-cut"  Engraving;   15,  Urn-shaped   Sugar  Bowl;  16,  Oval  Sugar  Bowl   or  Basket 


CHARACTERISTIC    CONTOURS    OF    FOURTH    CIlRONUlA.C;KAU    DIMSION 

c.  1800-C.1S30 
1-6,   Table-spoons  and  Tea-spoons,   "Coffin-tieadod"   and   "  Fiddlo-lieaded  ;   7  and  S 
Cream  Pitcher  and  Hot  Water  .)uk;  9,  Cup  or  Can;  10,  Moulded  Teapot;  U,  Ciadrooucd 
Oblong    Sugar   Bowl;    12,    Moulded   Cream    Pitcher;    13,    Moulded   Oblong   Sugar   Bowl; 
14  and  15,  Mugs  or  Cups 


,         1 

X       ' 

3 

-4- 

5 

6 

/ 

>.r^^::f~ , 

r\«S 

.    ^  '^M'>.' 

TSRg^ 

CHKUNOLUGICAL  SEQUENCE   OF   CHARACTERISTIC   CONTOURS 
1-4,  Mugs;  5,  Beaker;  6  and  7,  Cans;  8-11,  Teapots;  12-16,  Porringer,  Bowls  and  Sugar  Bowls;  17-21, 

Cream  Pitchers 


SILVER;  DOAIESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL     103 

at  an  early  date.  It  was  not  long  after  the  period  of 
settlement  of  Boston  and  Philadelpliia  before  there  was 
a  demand  for  silverware  by  colonists  whose  affairs  had 
prospered,  and,  in  response  to  the  demand,  silver- 
smiths, or  goldsmiths,  as  they  were  often  termed,  began 
to  ply  their  craft  and  proved  themselves  skillful  masters 
by  the  quality  and  design  of  their  handiwork.  As  early 
as  1634,  John  Mansfield,  a  silversmith,  seems  to  have 
been  working  in  Charlesto\\Ti,  Massachusetts,  but  no 
pieces  of  his  work  have  been  identified. 

In  Boston  silversmithing  began  before  the  close  of 
the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  a  mint, 
of  which  John  Hull  of  pine-tree  shilling  fame  was  chosen 
master,  was  set  up  there  in  1652.  The  profitable  trade 
driven  by  New  England  with  the  English  and  Spanish 
colonies  to  the  south  resulted  in  a  rich  influx  of  coin  into 
the  coffers  of  New  England  merchants  and  provided 
abundant  material  for  the  silversmiths  of  Boston  and 
other  i^rosperous  communities  to  work  upon. 

In  Philadelphia  we  find  one  smith,  Cesar  Ghiselin 
by  name,  a  Huguenot  who  early  cast  in  his  lot  with 
William  Pemi's  "Holy  Experiment"  by  the  banks  of 
the  Delaware.  The  said  Cesar  Ghiselin*  made  spoons 
and  other  articles  of  plate  almost  at  the  veiy  outset  of 
the  city's  history,  and  examjjles  of  his  workmanship  are 
shown  in  the  illustrations.  Thus  was  begun  a  worthy 
tradition  that  was  worthily  and  widely  sustained 
throughout  the  city's  subsequent  history,  as  abundant 
examples  of  her  silversmiths'  work  bear  eloquent  wit- 
ness. Boston  and  Philadelpliia  being  essentially  Eng- 
lish, their  smiths  naturally  followed  English  patterns 

♦This  name  is  frequently  pivon  as  C.riselm,  wliich  is  incorrect.  The 
name  is  (Jhisehn  as  here  printed  and  was  so  spelled  by  the  testator  m  his  will. 


104        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

and  precedents  in  their  silverware,  even  tliougii  they 
might,  as  they  frequently  did,  make  modifications  and 
adaptations  and  display  originality  that  was  quite  dis- 
tinct in  some  of  its  manifestations  from  contemporary 
English  forms. 

In  New  York,  on  the  contrary,  where  some  of  the 
smiths,  especially  the  earlier  smiths,  were  Dutch  and 
some  were  English,  plate  was  made  after  both  Dutch 
and  English  designs.  While  the  earlier  conditions 
under  Dutch  domination  were  scarcely  favourable  to 
silversmithing  and  trade  was  carried  on  chiefly  by 
barter,  affluence  and  luxury  increased  considerably 
after  the  English  occupation,  and,  despite  the  small  size 
of  New  York  as  compared  with  Philadelphia  or  'Boston 
at  that  time,  some  exquisitely  beautiful  pieces  of  plate 
were  produced  during  the  eighteenth  century  and  even 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth. 

There  is  record  of  so  many  seventeenth-  and 
eighteenth-century  American  silversmiths  in  what  are 
now  our  large  cities,  and  also  in  a  number  of  old  towns 
whose  growth  has  remained  comparatively  stationary, 
although  they  were  once  important  centres,  and  most 
of  them  seem  to  have  prospered,  that  the  inference  is 
natural  that  a  great  quantity  of  silver  plate — far  more 
than  is  generally  supposed — must  have  been  made. 
Much  of  it  still  remains,  and  the  fact  that  a  yet  larger 
amount  has  disappeared  is  easily  explained  by  the  habit 
our  forebears  had  of  melting  their  silver  and  converting 
it  into  specie  in  times  of  stress  and  necessity.  In  this 
way  a  vast  proportion  of  it,  doubtless,  vanished  during 
the  War  for  Independence.  Having  one 's  silver  in  the 
form  of  plate  was,  in  the  eyes  of  the  colonists,  tanta- 
mount to  having  it  in  the  bank.    Indeed,  during  the 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    105 

seventeenth  century  and  most  of  the  eift-hteentli,  in  the 
absence  of  banks  where  they  might  deposit  such  surplus 
funds  as  were  not  needed  for  immediate  expenditure, 
the  conversion  of  coin  into  household  plate  afforded  a 
convenient  way  of  keeping  it  intact  and  also,  incident- 
ally, added  not  a  little  to  the  gratification  of  ownership 
and  the  luxury  of  living.  Wills  and  inventories  of  the 
period  bear  witness  to  the  quantity  and  variety  of  silver 
plate  possessed  by  well-to-do  colonists  and  by  those 
whose  estate  was  not  reckoned  of  any  great  consequence. 
The  specimens  of  early  American  silver,  of  unques- 
tionably authentic  Colonial  make,  are  usually  so  ex- 
cellent in  design  and  workmanship,  regardless  of  the 
particular  locality  in  which  they  were  produced,  that 
we  may  conclude,  not  unreasonably,  that  the  majority 
of  American  craftsmen  were  quite  the  equals  of  their 
British  cousins  in  manual  skill  and  masterv  of  design. 
The  high  quality  of  the  American  silver  has  been  re- 
sponsible for  a  good  deal  of  it,  in  time  past,  being 
attributed  to  an  English  origin  by  people  who  have  not 
taken  the  pains  to  examine  the  marks  and  properly 
identify  its  source.  A  thorough  examination  and  in- 
ventory of  the  old  silver  plate  in  America,  both  domestic 
and  ecclesiastical,  would  probably  show  that  much  of  it 
that  popular  tradition  has  ascribed  to  a  British  source 
is  really  of  American  fabrication.  It  is  even  not  impos- 
sible that  many  a  proudly  treasured  piece,  which  time- 
honoured  tradition  and  a  fine  fancv  for  romance  have 
invested  with  the  glamour  of  an  English  origin,  supply- 
ing circumstantial  details  of  its  being  fetched  overseas 
to  the  new  land  among  the  effects  of  a  revered  ancestor, 
might  turn  out,  upon  close  inspection,  to  have  been 
made  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  or  Boston.    Tradition 


106       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

is  a  most  valuable  handmaid  to  history,  but  she  is  only 
a  hanclmaid  and  must  not  be  regarded  as  the  ultimate 
mistress.  That  tradition,  especially  tradition  fondly 
flattering  to  family  pride,  cannot  always  be  accepted 
with  implicit  confidence  one  may  judge  from  the  follow- 
ing instance.  Plenty  of  similar  instances  might  readily 
be  adduced.  The  writers  were  invited,  upon  one  occa- 
sion, by  an  acquaintance,  to  come  and  see  an  exception- 
ally fine  sideboard  which,  so  the  informant  positively 
averred,  had  been  in  his  wife 's  family  for  two  hundred 
years  to  his  certain  knowledge  and  perhaps  longer. 
Upon  examination,  the  two-hundred-year-old  sideboard, 
instead  of  being  a  Stuart  buffet  or  a  Queen  Anne 
dresser,  as  one  might  reasonably  have  expected  it  would 
be  from  the  date  assigned,  turned  out  to  be  a  particu- 
larly good  Hepplewhite  piece  of  American  manufacture 
that  could  not  possibly  have  been  made  before  1780  and 
was  probably  not  made  until  some  years  later. 

This  little  incident  serves  to  show  how  wary  one 
must  be  in  accepting  tradition.  The  proud  possessor  of 
the  two-hundred-year-old  sideboard  had  no  desire  to 
deceive.  He  honestly  believed  the  mass  of  inaccurate 
tradition  that  had  gradually  accumulated  in  his  wife 's 
family  anent  the  piece  in  question.  Absolute,  incontro- 
vertible facts  are  the  only  sure  things  to  rely  upon,  and 
absolute  facts  we  fortunately  have  in  old  silver  to  a 
greater  degree  than  is  the  case  with  any  other  sort  of 
antiques.  English  pieces  are  distinctly  marked  and 
bear  exact  evidence  of  their  place  of  origin  and  date  of 
manufacture.  American  pieces,  while  usually  bearing 
the  maker's  mark  or  name,  have  no  date  letter,  such 
as  appears  on  English  silver.  Their  age,  therefore,  can 
be  fixed  only  approximately,  either  by  knowing  the 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    107 

years  between  which  the  silversmith  worked  or  else,  in 
default  of  such  specific  knowledge  or  in  the  total  absence 
of  maker 's  name  or  mark — a  circumstance  by  no  means 
uncommon — by   the   contour,   which   affords   a  fairly 
accurate  index  to  date,  for  there  was  a  regular  evolu- 
tion and  development  of  silver  styles  that  can  be  traced 
throughout    the    w^iole    period    under    consideration. 
While  we  have  a  trustworthy  record  of  the  names  of 
many  seventeenth-,  eighteenth-,  and  early  nineteenth- 
century  silversmiths,  the  dates  of  their  manufacturing 
activity,  the  marks  they  used,  and  the  places  where  they 
worked,  it  also  happens  that  the  list  is  unfortunately 
by  no  means  complete ;  that  their  dates  are  not  definitely 
fixed,  there  being  often  only  a  single  year  with  which 
it  is  possible  to  connect  a  smith's  name;  that  the  places 
in  which  they  worked  are  not  always  surely  known; 
finally,  that  not  a  few  of  the  well-known  smiths,  and 
doubtless  those  less  known  as  well,  varied  their  marks 
from  time  to  time  as  the  fancy  struck  them,  and  that 
there  is  no  fully  exhaustive  table  so  far  compiled  for 
the  identification  of  all  the  marks  employed.  It  still  re- 
mains for  some  enterprising  and  enthusiastic  collector 
or  antiquary  to  bring  the  various  lists  to  perfection. 
The  lists  given  in  this  chapter  are  as  full  as  the  authors 
have  been  able  to  make  them,  and  embody  the  sum  of 
the  results  attained  by  R.  T.  Haines  Ilalsey,  Esq.,  Miss 
Florence  V.  Paull,  of  the  Boston  Museum  of  Art,  J.  IT. 
Buck,  Esq.,  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New 
York;  Dr.  Edwin  AtLee  Barber,  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art;  the  Honourable 
A.  T.  Clearwater,  and  others  who  have  contributed  such 
valuable  results  to  the  elucidation  of  all  matters  per- 
taining to  early  American  silver  and  have  done  so  much 


108       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

to  further  appreciation  of  the  labours  of  the  Colonial 
and  post-Colonial  silversmitlis. 

What  manner  of  men  the  American  silversmiths  of 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  were,  how  they 
pursued  their  calling  and  how  their  personalities 
counted  in  the  life  of  the  Colonies  during  the  formative 
stage  of  our  country's  growth,  we  may  gather  from  a 
brief  review  of  the  careers  of  a  representative  few  who 
followed  the  mystery  of  St.  Dunstan.  Among  the  first 
to  occur  to  mind  in  such  connexion  is  the  first 
American  mint-master,  John  Hull.  Born  in  England 
in  1624,  he  w^as  brought  to  Boston  in  1635,  and  his 
diary  tells  us  that  ''after  a  little  keeping  at  school,  I 
was  taken  to  help  my  father  plant  corn,  which  I  attended 
to  for  several  years  together,  and  then,  by  God's  good 
hand,  I  fell  to  learning  (by  the  help  of  my  brother)  and 
to  practise  the  trade  of  Goldsmith. ' '  When  the  General 
Court  of  Massachusetts,  in  1652,  set  up  the  first  Amer- 
ican mint  in  Boston  to  coin  shillings  and  their  fractions, 
Hull  was  made  mint  master,  as  previously  noted,  and 
compensated  for  his  services  by  being  allowed  to  retain 
for  himself  one  shilling  out  of  every  twenty. 

In  this  public  work  Hull  associated  with  himself  his 
friend  Eobert  Sanderson,  probably  his  senior  and  mas- 
ter in  craftsmanship  and  whom  he  seems  also  to  have 
made  his  partner  in  his  silversmithing  business,  and 
together,  for  thirty  years,  they  supplied  Massachusetts 
with  shillings  and  smaller  coinage  from  the  little  mint- 
house,  sixteen  feet  square  by  ten  feet  high.  After  Hull's 
death,  Sanderson  continued  the  silversmith's  business 
alone,  and  his  pieces  are  stamped  with  his  own  in- 
dividual mark  in  distinction  to  the  earlier  work  which 
bears  the  joint  imprint  of  both  Hull  and  Sanderson. 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    109 

Hull  soon  amassed  a  most  substantial  fortune  which 
was  further  increased  by  successful  trading  ventures 
to  the  West  Indies.  He  was  Town  Treasurer  in  IGGO 
and  Treasurer  of  the  Colony  in  1G7G,  financing  the  Ship 
of  State  in  stringent  periods  and  acting  in  t'he  general 
capacity  of  a  banker.  His  daughter  became  the  wife  of 
Judge  Sewall,  whose  diary  is  such  a  storehouse  of  in- 
formation regarding  early  New  England  life.  Hull's 
own  diary,  * '  Penned  down  that  I  may  be  the  more  mind- 
ful of,  and  thankful  for  all  God's  Dispensation  towards 
me,"  has  been  published  by  the  Massachusetts  His- 
torical Society  and  is  highly  interesting  reading.  In 
addition  to  filling  the  posts  of  Town  Treasurer  and 
Treasurer  of  the  Colony,  as  just  mentioned,  Hull  repre- 
sented the  Town  of  Wenham  in  1G68,  and  was  for  a  long 
time  actively  associated  with  Boston's  Artilleiy  Com- 
pany— now  the  Ancient  and  Honourable  Artillery  Com- 
pany— serving  as  ensign  in  that  early  organisation  for 
preparedness  in  1663,  lieutenant  in  1664,  and  captain  in 
1671  and  1678.  He  was  no  less  active  in  the  affairs  of 
the  Church  militant  than  in  the  affairs  of  the  State 
militant,  and  was  one  of  the  prime  movers  in  establish- 
ing the  Old  South  Church.  He  was  a  man  of  broad 
education  and,  though  not  possessed  of  a  college  train- 
ing, w^as  a  student  of  the  classics.  His  advice  and 
counsel  were  sought  and  valued  alike  in  matters  of  civic 
moment  and  personal  concern.  In  short,  he  filled  so 
important  a  place  both  in  private  life  and  in  the  public 
affairs  of  the  community  that  he  is  unquestionably  to 
be  regarded  as  one  of  early  Boston's  most  representa- 
tive citizens.  He  is  buried  in  the  Granary  Burial 
Ground,  in  the  midst  of  the  pulsing  life  of  the  city  whose 
infancy  he  served  so  faitlifuUy. 


no       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

In  speaking  of  Boston's  early  silversmiths,  another 
name  that  immediately  suggests  itself  is  that  of  Paul 
Revere,  who,  besides  being  a  most  skillful  silver  crafts- 
man, was  an  engraver,  a  painter,  a  cartoonist,  a  founder 
of  brass,  a  manufacturer  in  several  fields,  an  ardent 
patriot,  and,  to  sum  it  all  up  briefly,  Boston's  general 
handy  man  who  seemed  able  to  do  almost  anything  and, 
what  was  more,  to  do  it  well.  Incidentally,  he  usually 
contrived  to  be  well  paid  for  what  he  did.  It  would  be 
hard,  indeed,  to  find  any  sort  of  activity  into  which  Paul 
Revere  did  not  enter  at  one  time  or  another,  but  so  much 
has  been  well  written  about  him  elsewhere,  with  due 
reference  also  to  his  father,  who  was  a  silversmith  of 
no  mean  ability,  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  engage  here  in 
further  details  of  a  biographical  nature.  Suffice  it  for 
our  present  purpose  to  remind  the  reader  of  Revere 's 
prominence  in  the  doings  of  Boston  in  his  day. 

Among  Boston's  other  early  and  notable  silver- 
smiths mention  must  be  made  of  Jeremiah  Dummer 
(1645-1718),  who  learned  his  craft  from  Hull,  to  whom 
he  was  apprenticed  as  a  lad,  and,  besides  producing 
highly  creditable  work,  '^  became  an  important  person- 
age in  the  Colony,  serving  as  non-commissioned  officer 
in  the  Artillery,  as  Selectman,  Justice  of  the  Peace, 
Treasurer  of  the  County,  Judge  of  one  of  the  Inferior 
Courts,  and  as  one  of  the  Council  of  Safety  in  1689,  at 
the  time  of  the  trouble  with  France."  None  of  these 
honours  was  bestowed  lightly  nor  without  sufficient 
reason,  and  that  Dummer  filled  them  is  conclusive  evi- 
dence of  his  personal  worth  and  of  the  esteem  in  which 
he  was  held  by  his  fellow-citizens.  He  was  weighty 
enough  in  ecclesiastical  matters  for  Increase  Mather  to 
dedicate  one  of  his  discourses  to  him,  and  the  following 


Beaker  with  characteristic  Dutch  Strapwork  and  Foliage 
Ornament.  New  York,  Latter  Part  of  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury. Mark  indistinct  so  that  Maker  cannot  beidentified 
Cup  or  Small  Bowl  of  Oval  Shape.  Late  Seventeenth 
Century.  New  York.  Maker  unidentified;  Mark  T.  T. 
crowned  in  Shield 

Clearwater    Collection,    Metropolitan    Museum    of    Art, 

New  York  City 
Courtesy  of  the  HonoiiniMc  A.  T.  Clearwater,  Kingston- 

on-iludaoD 


Pair  of  Forks  by  John  Noyes  (1674-1749).  Mugs:  1,  Formerly  attributed  to  Cesar  Ghiselin  and 
so  ascribed  in  tiie  text.  Since  the  book  has  gone  to  press  investigation  has  proved  attribution  incorrect. 
Maker  (G.G.)  unidentified;  2,  by  John  Dixwell  (1680-1728);  3,  Maker  unknown;  4,  Maker  unknown 
(possibly  Spanish) 

Forks,  1  and  2,  Clearwater  Collection,  Boston  Museum  of  Art  and  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New 

York  City 
Courtesy  of  the  Honourable  A.  T.  Clearwater,  Kingston-on-Hudson 
3  and  4,  Courtesy  of  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    HI 

obituary  notice  in  the  Boston  News  Letter  of  June  2, 
1718,  plainly  attests  the  public  regard  entertained  for 
his  qualities;  "On  the  25th  past,  Departed  this  life 
Jeremiah  Dummer,  Esq.,  in  the  73rd  year  of  his  Age, 
after  a  long  retirement,  under  great  infirmities  of  Age 
and  Sickness,  having  served  his  country  faithfully  in 
several  Publick  Stations,  and  obtained  of  all  that  kn(nv 
him  the  Character  of  a  Just,  Virtuous,  and  Pious  Man, 
and  was  Honourably  Interr'd  on  Thursday  last;  He 
was  Son  to  Richard  Dummer,  Esq. ;  who  was  one  of  the 
first  and  principal  settlers  of  the  Massachusetts  colony, 
and  died  at  Newbury."  Of  Jeremiah  Dummer 's  two 
sons,  AVilliam,  the  elder,  became  Lieutenant  Governour 
and  discharged  the  duties  of  Governour,  in  the  absence 
of  Governour  Shute,  from  1716  to  1728,  and  also  in  1729, 
following  the  death  of  Governour  Burnett,  while  the 
younger  son,  Jeremiah  Dummer  junior,  likewise  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  public  life  for  a  considerable 
period.  John  Cony  (1G55-1722),  the  brother-in-law  of 
Jeremiah  Dummer,  from  whom  it  is  likely  he  received 
his  training  in  craftsmanship,  was  another  silversmith 
well  known  for  his  excellent  work  and  prominent  in  the 
civic  life  of  his  day.  He  it  was  who,  almost  beyond  all 
question,  engraved  the  plates  for  the  first  American 
paper  money. 

Jolm  Dixwell  (1680-1725),  a  son  of  the  regicide 
Colonel  Jolm  Dixwell,  not  only  made  excellent  silver- 
ware, but  was  active  in  the  life  of  his  day  and  a  deacon 
in  the  New  North  Church,  which  enjoyed  the  distinc- 
tion of  being  ''erected  in  1714  by  seventeen  mechanics, 
'unassisted  by  the  more  wealthy  part  of  the  community, 
except  by  their  prayers  and  good  wishes.'  "  John 
Edwards  (1687-1743),  represented  by  numerous  admir- 


112        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

able  pieces,  was  a  man  of  education  above  the  average, 
conspicuous  in  public  affairs,  and  of  sufficiently  prom- 
inent social  position  to  be  granted,  by  the  Selectmen,  the 
use  of  the  tomb  built  by  Governour  Endicott  as  being 
the  nearest  of  living  kin  to  that  worthy.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Artillery  Company  and  was,  therefore,  one 
of  the  fifteen  or  more  early  Boston  silversmiths  whose 
names  appear  on  the  rolls  of  that  time-honoured  organ- 
isation. Edward  Winslow  (1669-1753),  at  one  time 
captain  of  the  Artillery  Company,  was  a  notable  figure 
both  from  the  position  of  his  family  and  also  from  the 
influence  he  exercised  in  civil  and  military  affairs,  serv- 
ing at  one  time  or  another  as  Tithingman,  Constable, 
Overseer  of  the  Poor,  Sheriff  of  the  Town,  Colonel  of 
the  Boston  Regiment,  and  Judge  of  the  Inferior  Court 
of  Common  Pleas.  Andrew  Tyler  (1691-1741)  had 
influential  family  connexions,  married  a  sister  of  Sir 
William  Pepperrell,  and  was  a  conspicuous  figure  in 
political  affairs. 

An  advertisement  inserted  by  James  Turner  in  the 
Boston  Evening  Post  of  June  24,  1745,  gives  some  idea 
of  the  manifold  activities  pursued  by  the  silversmiths 
of  the  period : 

"James  Turner,  Silversmith  &  Engraver,  Near  the  Town 
House  in  Cornhill,  Boston,  Engraves  all  sorts  of  Copper 
Plates  for  the  Rolling  Press,  all  sorts  of  Stamps  in 
Brass  or  Pewter  for  the  common  Printing  Press,  Coats 
of  Arms,  Crests,  Cyphers,  &c.,  on  Gold,  Silver,  Steel, 
Copper,  Brass  or  Pewter.  He  likewise  makes  Watch 
Faces,  makes  and  cuts  Seals  in  Gold,  Silver,  or  Steel ; 
or  makes  Steel  Faces  for  Seals,  and  sets  them  hand- 
somely in  Gold  or  Silver.  He  cuts  all  sorts  of  Steel 
Stamps,  Brass  Rolls  and  Stamps  for  Sadlers  and  Book- 
binders and  does  all  other  sorts  of  work  in  Gold  and 
Silver.  All  after  the  best  and  neatest  manner,  and  at 
the  most  Reasonable  Rates." 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    113 

Turner  was  a  silversmith  of  niucli  repute,  but,  as  the 
advertisement  clearly  indicates,  he  did  not  hesitate  to 
engage  in  sundry  other  activities  germane  to  his  craft, 
and  most  of  the  seventeenth-  and  eighteenth-century 
silversmiths  doubtless  did  precisely  the  same  thing. 
Not  a  few  of  them  made  jewellery  as  well  as  fashioning 
spoons  and  porringers,  tankards  and  cans,  and  it  seems 
to  have  been  not  an  unusual  thing  for  them  to  turn  their 
hands  to  engraving.  This  was  a  natural  line  of  ex- 
pansion, inasmuch  as  they  made  such  frequent  use  of 
engraving  for  the  embellishment  of  their  finer  pieces  of 
silverware.  Jeremiah  Dummer  printed  the  first  paper 
money  for  Connecticut, ' '  and  presumably  engraved  the 
plate ' '  from  which  it  was  made. 

One  might  go  on  almost  indefinitely  recounting  bio- 
graphical data  of  Boston's  early  silversmiths  who  occu- 
pied prominent  places  in  civic  life,  but  the  foregoing 
notice  is  sufficient  for  our  purpose.  In  the  post-Colonial 
period  silversmithing  in  l^oston  was  largely  concen- 
trated among  members  of  the  Burt,  Ilurd.  and  Revere 
families. 

While  Boston  led  in  the  immber  and  personal  con- 
sequence of  her  silversmiths,  there  were  other  places  in 
Massachusetts  where  excellent  silverware  was  wrought 
at  an  early  period.  Am.ong  them  may  be  mentioned 
Salem,  Hingham,  Marblehead,  Newburyport,  Hull,  Con- 
cord, Stockbridge,  Milton,  Plymouth,  New  Bedford, 
Braintree,  Deerfield,  Taunton,  Dedham,  Ashby,  Natick, 
Ipswich,  ]\Iedford,  and  Bolton.  Charlestown  and  Box- 
bury,  though  at  that  time  separate  from  Boston,  were 
geographically  so  close  that  the  several  smiths  who 
lived  there  may  be  counted  in  the  Boston  list. 

Elsewhere  in  New  England,  too,  but  especially  in 
8 


114       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  silversmiths  were  fairly 
numerous  and  seem  to  have  produced  a  good  deal  of 
highly  creditable  ware.  In  Newport  we  find  them  at 
work  in  the  neighbourhood  of  1700 — Samuel  Vernon 
(1683-1737)  appears  to  have  been  the  first;  in  Prov- 
idence, at  a  somewhat  later  date,  Jabez  Gorham  worked 
at  the  craft,  and  his  descendants  carried  the  name  on 
to  its  present  connexion  with  a  great  modern  business ; 
in  Milf  ord,  Connecticut,  Job  Prince,  who  died  in  1703 , 
was  the  first  known  to  have  worked  in  that  colony.  New 
Haven,  Norwich,  and  Hartford  could  boast  an  honour- 
able list  of  silversmiths,  but,  besides  these,  there  were 
others  of  their  craft  who  worked  at  Killingworth,  Nor- 
walk,  Guilford,  Waterbury,  Preston,  Goshen,  Litchfield, 
Bridgeport,  Stratford,  Colchester,  Canterbury,  Middle- 
town,  Farmington,  Mansfield,  Stonington,  East  Hart- 
ford, New  London,  Danbury,  Windham,  East  Haddam', 
Hebron,  Hampton,  Cheshire,  Durham,  Enfield,  Lyme, 
and  several  other  small  towns. 

Some  of  the  Ehode  Island  and  Connecticut  silver- 
smiths, as,  for  instance,  Major  Jonathan  Otis,  of  New- 
port, who  died  in  1791 — a  skilful  jeweller,  too — or  Cap- 
tain Robert  Fairchild  (1703-1794),  of  New  Haven,  were 
men  of  eminence  and  filled  conspicuous  roles  in  public 
affairs.  Not  a  few  of  them  volunteered  for  military 
service,  especially  in  the  War  for  Independence,  and 
acquitted  themselves  so  creditably  that  we  hear  of  Cap- 
tain Phineas  Bradley,  Colonel  Aner  Bradley,  Colonel 
Miles  Beach,  Captain  Samuel  Parmelee,  and  many  more 
of  official  rank.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
there  was  not  the  same  opulence  in  agricultural  Con- 
necticut and  Rhode  Island  as  there  was  in  the  area  of 
commercial  concentration  about  Boston  and  the  towns 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    115 

nearby,  and  consequently  there  was  not  a  sufficient  de- 
mand for  the  silversmiths'  services  to  keep  them  all 
continuously  busy  at  their  craft.  It  is  not  surprising, 
therefore,  to  find  that  not  a  few  of  them  were  obliged 
to  carry  on  other  trades  as  well  to  eke  out  a  living.  This 
one  made  clocks,  that  one  did  cabinet  work,  another  kept 
a  tavern  and  still  another  was  a  blacksmitli,  so  that  it 
is  no  uncommon  thing  to  discover  the  members  of  a 
semi-rural  community  calling  upon  the  same  sturdy 
yeoman  to  shoe  their  horses  and  fashion  their  teapots. 
These  local  silversmiths,  despite  their  intennittent 
diversion  to  other  pursuits,  ''did  most  creditable  work 
when  occasion  demanded,  although, ' '  owing  to  the  wont 
of  persons  of  means  to  patronise,  then  as  now,  the 
craftsmen  of  Boston  or  New  York  for  "articles  of  ex- 
ceptional quality  and  worth,"  "their  products  seem 
to  have  been  distributed  almost  wholly  in  their  o\\ti 
localities — one  might  indeed  say  among  their  fellow- 
townsmen.  One  never  finds  in  Hartford  the  work  of  a 
New  Haven  smith,  nor  in  New  Haven  the  product  of  a 
man  wdio  was  working  in  New  London,  except  when 
recent  migration  carried  the  ware  from  home." 

The  earlv  silversmiths  of  New  York,  like  their  con- 
temporaries  in  New  England,  were  often  in  the  public 
eye  and  appear  to  have  enjoyed  the  confidence  and 
esteem  of  their  fellow-citizens,  if  we  may  judge  from 
the  records  of  their  activities  in  the  service  of  the  com- 
monweal. There  w^as  worthy  old  Ahasuerus  Hendricks 
or  Hendrickse,  who  came  from  Holland  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  and  made  "jewellery,  rings,  funeral 
spoons,  and  beakers,  and,  as  well,  fashioned  the  silver 
spears,  pikes,  and  sword  hilts  affected  by  the  mili- 
tant burghers"  of  New  York.    His  name  appears  on 


116       EARLY  x^MERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

the  list  of  those  swearing  allegiance  to  the  King  in 
1675 ;  in  1686  he  was  commissioned  to  assist  in  better- 
ing the  city  supply  of  drinking  water;  in  1687  he 
became  constable  for  the  North  ward;  between  1675 
and  1693  his  name  is  often  entered  in  the  records  of 
the  Dutch  Eeformed  Church  ''as  a  witness  to  the 
baptisms  of  the  children  of  many  well-known  families ' ' ; 
in  1689  the  city  settled  his  voucher,  along  with  the 
vouchers  of  Johannes  Kip  and  Tennis  DeKay,  for 
"Sundry  to  y''  poore  &  Ace",''  so  that,  besides  ful- 
filling various  other  benevolent  functions,  he  was  evi- 
dently charged  with  a  share  in  the  oversight  of  the 
needy  inhabitants  of  the  city.  Carol  van  Brugh  was 
likewise  a  personage  of  weight  and  also  a  picturesque 
character  in  seventeenth-century  Manhattan.  He  it  was 
who  "made  the  gold  cup  presented  to  Governour 
Fletcher  in  1693,  the  bullion  for  which  was  purchased 
for  one  hundred  and  six  pounds  sterling  and  turned 
over  to  Vanderburgh  [van  Brugh]  to  fashion,"  the 
Council  i3roviding  ' '  that  the  revenue  from  the  ferry  be 
used  for  no  other  purpose  until  the  bill  for  this  was 
paid."  The  HugTienot  Bartholomew  LeRoux,  first  of 
the  noted  New  York  silversmiths  of  that  name,  was 
actively  concerned  in  behalf  of  the  people's  cause  at 
the  time  of  the  Leisler  Rebellion  in  1689.  Of  the  two 
Boelens,  Jacob  and  Hendrik,  father  and  son,  who  came 
from  Holland  soon  after  1680,  and  did  a  thriving  busi- 
ness, the  elder  figured  conspicuously  in  matters  of  the 
city 's  concerns,  as  may  be  seen  by  glancing  at  a  list  of 
some  of  the  positions  of  responsibility  entrusted  to  him : 
he  was  nine  years  assessor  for  the  North  ward ;  he  was 
sometime  brant  master,  by  appointment  of  the  Council, 
which  also  ordered  that  "five  Ladders  be  made  to  serve 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    117 

upon  occasion  of  Fyrc,  with  suffieioiit  hooks  thereto"; 
in  1693  he  was  one  of  the  special  assessors  detailed  "to 
assess  &  rate  the  inhabitants  Residence  &  Freeholders 
(the)  1725  proportion  for  the  City  for  liaising  £GUO() 
for  payment  300  volunteers  to  reinforce  the  Frontiers 
at  Albany  May  1693-4" ;  he  was  made  alderman  for  the 
North  ward  in  1695  and  1697;  lie  served  on  the  com- 
mittee for  choosing  a  site  and  finding  ways  and  means 
for  erecting  the  new  City  Hall ;  he  was  among  the  p(^ti- 
tioners  for  the  restoration  of  the  bolting  monopoly,  and 
in  other  ways,  also,  bore  his  share  of  the  city's  corporate 
responsibilities — a  record  surely  ample  to  attest  the 
public  confidence  reposed  in  his  integrity  and  jud.gment. 
Jacobus  Van  der  Spiegel,  of  American  birth  and  of  a 
family  "long  prominent  in  social  life,"  was  an  ensign 
in  Captain  Walter's  company,  sent  to  Albany  in  1689 
"to  protect  the  northern  frontier  against  the  impending 
French  invasion,"  later  held  a  captain's  commission 
and,  in  1698,  "was  elected  to  the  highly  honourable 
position  of  constable. ' '  Garrett  Onclebagh,  who  served 
several  successive  aldermanic  terms,  and  Cornelius 
Kierstede  or  Kierstead,  wlio  wrought  first  in  New  York 
and  afterwards  in  New  Haven,  whither  he  removed 
about  1722,  having  some  interest  in  a  copper  jnining 
project  in  the  Blue  Hills  district,  were  both  men  of  local 
note  and  of  influential  family  connexions  and  may  be 
regarded  as  representative  of  the  New  York  silver- 
smiths of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  To 
the  list  of  silversmiths  already  given  one  might  add  the 
names  of  various  members  of  the  Van  Dvck,  LeKoux, 
and  other  families  of  Dutch  or  Huguenot  extraction, 
besides  many  more  of  English  blood,  who  became  in- 
creasingly numerous  as  the  eighteenth  century  wore  on. 


118        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

all  of  whom  were  eminently  substantial  citizens  and 
time  and  again  appointed  or  elected  to  posts  of  influence 
and  trust.  Albany,  too,  may  claim  a  respectable  list  of 
silversmiths  who  worked  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century  and  the  fore  part  of  the  nineteenth, 
while  Utica,  Kingston-on-Hudson,  and  other  places 
must  be  remembered  also. 

In  the  Middle  Colonies,  that  is  to  say,  in  Pennsyl- 
vania and  New  Jersey,  we  find  admirable  traditions  of 
silversmithing  established  almost  at  the  very  begin- 
nings of  colonisation  and  that  the  silversmiths  were 
men  of  repute  amongst  their  neighbours.  At  the  head 
of  the  list  are  Cesar  Ghiselin,  the  Huguenot,  and  Philip 
Syng  the  elder,  both  of  whom  plied  their  craft  while 
Penn's  Colony  was  still  in  swaddling  clothes  and  both 
of  whom  left  enduring  witnesses  to  their  skillful  crafts- 
manship in  a  part  of  the  silver  belonging  to  Christ 
Church,  witnesses  that  would  entitle  them  to  high  rank 
in  their  calling  even  if  there  were  no  other  extant  evi- 
dences of  their  handiwork  to  attest  their  prowess. 
Ghiselin 's  beaker  and  plate,  the  gift  to  Christ  Church 
of  "Margaret  Tresse,  spinstor,"  are  shown  in  one  of 
the  illustrations  as  also  are  the  flagon  and  the  great 
baptismal  bowl  made  by  Philip  Syng  the  elder  and 
presented  to  Christ  Church,  in  1712,  by  that  excellent 
but  tempestuous  gentleman.  Colonel  Robert  Quarry. 
Ghiselin  occupied  a  respected  position  in  the  com- 
munity, and  numerous  descendants,  in  the  female  line, 
are  to  be  found  among  those  bearing  honoured  names 
in  the  city  annals. 

Philip  Syng  was  more  conspicuous  in  the  life  of  the 
infant  city  than  was  Ghiselin,  had  influential  con- 
nexions by  blood  and  marriage  and  left  issue  whose 


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1 ,  .'^ugar  Tongs,  unmarked,  c.  1730;  2,  I'orrinjier  liv  Samuel  \'ernon  (1GS3-1737) ;  3,  Porringer 
by  William  Cowell  (1682-1736);  4,  Porringer  by  John  Cony  (1655-1722);  5,  Candlestick,  Baluster 
Stem  and  Moulded  Base;  Marked  B.  M.  (unidentified)  c.  1745;  6,  Porringer  by  Adrian  Bancker 
(1703-1761).     Clearwater  Collection,  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York  City 
Courtesy  of  the  Honourable  A.  T.  Clearwater,  KingstOn-on-Hudson 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    119 

widespread  ramifications  may  easily  be  traced  to-day 
in  the  ''genealogical  centre  of  the  universe."  He  was 
succeeded  in  business  by  his  son,  Philip  Syng  the 
younger,  who,  in  1752,  made  for  the  Assembly  of  Penn- 
sylvania the  tray,  ink-pot,  quill  holder  and  sand  shaker 
(shown  in  one  of  the  illustrations),  afterwards  used 
in  signing  both  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and, 
eleven  years  later,  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
and  still  carefully  preserved  among  the  treasures  of 
the  State  House. 

To  name  but  one  more,  although  there  are  many 
others  no  less  deserving  of  extended  biographical  men- 
tion, there  was  Joseph  Anthony  (1762-1814)  of  prom- 
inent connexions  and  cousin  to  Gilbert  Stuart,  who 
owed  his  training  abroad  and  his  successful  start  in 
life  as  a  portrait  painter  to  the  generosity  of  Anthony's 
father,  a  Philadelphia  merchant.  While  mentioning 
Anthony 's  excellent  silverwork,  one  would  willingly  go 
on  and  speak  at  length  of  William  Vilant  and  Ellias 
Boudinot,  of  Lownes  and  Richardson,  of  Shoemaker  and 
Williamson,  of  Anthony  Rasch  and  Nicholas  Coleman 
and  a  long  list  of  other  Philadelphia  and  New  Jersey 
silversmiths  who  adorned  their  craft  and  served  their 
several  communities  and  country;  one  would  also  gladly 
chronicle  somewhat  of  the  smiths  who,  though  fewer  in 
number,  wrought  in  Virginia  and  also  in  Annapolis  and, 
late  in  the  eighteenth  century,  in  Baltimore,  but  our 
purpose  has  been  sufficiently  fulfilled  in  calling  atten- 
tion to  two  things — first,  what  manner  of  men  the 
Colonial  silversmiths  were  and,  second,  how  goodly  a 
company  of  them,  during  the  Colonial  period  and  the 
immediately  post-Colonial  period,  plied  their  calling. 

In   his    admirable    volume,    "The    Old    Silver    of 


120       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

American  Cliurclies,"  E.  Alfred  Jones  notes  tlie  fact 
that,  "of  the  2000  odd  pieces  of  ecclesiastical  silver," 
therein  described  by  him,  ' '  of  manufacture  anterior  to 
1825,"  about  1640  were  made  by  American  silver- 
smiths. He  also  notes  that  '*in  the  late  seventeenth 
century  and  down  to  the  year  1800,  over  one  hundred 
and  seventy  silversmiths  were  at  work  in  the  city  of 
New  York."  If  this  was  true  of  a  relatively  small 
place,  it  is  plain  to  be  seen  how  great  must  have  been 
the  aggregate  when  the  larger,  wealthier  and  alto- 
gether more  important  centres  like  Philadelphia  and 
Boston  were  taken  into  account.  A  conservative  esti- 
mate of  the  smiths  coming  within  our  purview  might 
readily  give  their  number  as  500  or  even  more.  It  is 
manifestly  evident,  therefore,  that  it  is  well  worth 
while  for  the  collector  and  the  connoisseur  to  be  keenly 
on  the  lookout  for  the  many  specimens  of  their  work 
that  still  remain. 

PROCESSES 

American  silver  of  the  Colonial  and  post-Colonial 
periods  was  a  product  in  whose  making  the  cunning  of 
the  artificer 's  hand  and  his  conception  of  form  were  the 
factors  of  paramount  importance,  while  the  hard,  per- 
functory element  of  mechanical  exactitude  figured 
scarcely  at  all.  To  this  intimate  manual  connexion 
between  the  craftsman  and  the  wares  he  fashioned  are 
to  be  in  great  measure  attributed  the  flexibility,  vigour, 
and  freshness  of  design  and  also  the  subtly  individual 
diversities  of  form  characteristic  of  the  early  silver, 
hardly  any  two  pieces  ever  being  exactly  the  same. 

Tradition,  too,  was  a  powerful  agent  for  the  good- 
ness of  both  pattern  and  workmanship.    The  appren- 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIAvSTICAL    121 

tice  system  was  in  full  force,  and  a  lad,  whose  parents 
were  minded  that  he  should  follow  the  silversmith's 
craft,  left  the  parental  roof  at  the  age  of  twelve  or 
thereabouts  and  went  to  live  with  his  master.  The 
mysteries  of  silver  working  thenceforward  became  a 
part  of  his  daily  life,  a  part  of  the  very  atmosphere  in 
which  he  had  his  being.  A  feeling  for  the  metal,  the 
forms  into  which  it  was  meet  to  be  worked  and  the 
methods  of  decoration  to  be  employed  thereon,  became 
ingrained  in  his  very  nature.  Small  w^onder,  then,  when 
he  had  faithfully  fulfilled  the  years  of  his  apprentice- 
ship, that  he  should  be  well  able  to  practise  worthily  the 
sound  tradition  of  craftsmanship  he  had  imbibed.  In 
this  respect  the  old  smiths  had  a  vast  advantage  over 
their  modern  successors,  who  must,  perforce,  learn  all 
they  know  in  a  brief  space  of  training,  and  that  after 
their  most  impressionable  years  are  past. 

The  texture  of  the  metal  is  another  reason  for  the 
great  beauty  of  old  silver,  and  this  texture  was  due  to 
the  method  of  working  it  wholly  by  hand.  Compare  a 
piece  of  modem  silver,  no  matter  how  excellent  its 
make,  with  a  good  piece  of  the  old  work,  and  the  su- 
perior beauty  of  the  metal  surface  in  the  latter  is  at 
once  apparent.  The  modern  metal,  rolled  out  before 
working  under  heavy  mechanical  pressure,  has  all  the 
life  crushed  out  of  it,  and  no  amount  of  subsequent 
working  by  hand  can  take  away  its  hardness  of  aspect 
and  impart  to  it  the  soft,  lustrous,  mellow  appearance 
of  the  old  metal  that  was  discretely  alloyed,  annealed, 
and  wrought  by  hand  from  the  moment  the  molten  coin 
was  run  into  ingots  from  the  melting-pot.  Even  the 
conscientious  modern  craftsworker  can  do  no  more  to 
produce  texture  than  dent  the  surface  with  hammer 


122       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

marks,  unless  he  resorts  wholly  to  the  methods  of  the 
seventeenth-  and  eighteenth-century  smiths.  This  will 
necessarily  increase  the  cost  of  his  product,  and  there 
are  few  wlro  are  willing  to  pay  the  price.  The  texture 
of  old  silver  is  comparable  in  a  way  to  the  patina  of  old 
furniture,  at  least  so  far  as  its  charm  is  concerned ;  but 
patina  on  wood  is  largely  a  surface  matter  and  may  be 
cleverly  simulated  if  the  "antiquer"  is  expert  enough 
and  willing  to  take  the  pains.  The  texture  of  silver,  on 
the  contrary,  is  more  than  skin  deep,  and  can  be  arrived 
at  only  by  fundamental  processes. 

The  workshops,  in  which  many  of  the  early  silver- 
smiths produced  their  rarely  beautiful  wares,  were  in- 
significant little  structures,  oftentimes  not  as  large  as 
the  country  roadside  smithies  where  one  may  still  see 
a  farrier  shoeing  horses  from  the  neighbouring  farms. 
When  John  Hull  and  Robert  Sanderson  wrought  drink- 
ing vessels,  church  silver  services  and  domestic  table- 
ware and  supplied  the  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts 
with  ''pine  tree"  shillings  and  smaller  coinage  in  a 
little  mint  house  * '  sixteen  feet  square  by  ten  feet  high, ' ' 
one  can  readily  understand  the  entry  in  Judge  Sewall  's 
diary,  under  date  of  June  21,  1707,  anent  the  silver- 
smith William  Cowell,  that  "Billy  Cowell's  shop  is 
entered  by  the  chimney  and  a  considerable  quantity  of 
plate  was  stolen. ' ' 

Some  knowledge  of  how  the  metal  was  manipulated 
from  its  ingot  stage  to  its  finished  shape  will  contribute 
to  our  appreciation  of  a  precious  heritage  of  handiwork 
fit  for  modern  emulation.  Such  knowledge  we  may 
gather  from  an  inventory  of  tlie  tools  belonging  to 
John  Burt  of  Boston,  who  died  in  1745,  and  from  the 
lucid  explanatory  comment  thereon  by  E.  T.  Haines 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    123 

Halsey,  Esq.,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  so  much 
valuable  work  for  the  preservation,  study  and  ap- 
preciation of  early  American  silver. 

Inventory  of  John  Burt 
31G  oz  4  pwt  of  Silver  @  3G/  p  oz  £500.3/  Gold  18  oz 

12  pwt  @  £27  p  oz  £500.17/ 1070 

Cash  £100—33  oz  of  Correll  (a  20  pr  oz.  £33 133 

5  pair  of  stone  eaiings  &  3  sett  of  stone  buttons  £30 

a  parcell  of  old  stones  £7   37 

a  parcell  of  Christalls  for  Buttons  &  Earings 32 

a  parcell  of  old  stone  work   5 

2   .Show  Glasses   .£5.0/53   pair  of  Cliapes  &  tongs 

£10  .2/    .., 15  2 

11  Files,  3.3/  a  pair  of  large  and  small  bellows  40/         3  13 

a  large  Forgin  Anvil  ]-20  Id  @  2/  0  p  £15 — ^1  small 

do  £!)    24 

9  raising  Anvils  217  Id  @  .3/  0  p  Id  £37  .10  .0  .2 

planishing  Teaster  39  Id  @  3/6  £6  16  .0 44  10 

2  Spoon  Teaster  £20 — 2  planishing  ditto  25/3  bencli 

vises    £12     39  5 

9  small  vises  4.5/  2'  beak  irons  20/  40  hammers  @ 

8/  pr  hammer  18  .10  .10   22  1 

2  Melting  Skillets  £5  .  37  bottom  stakes  &  punches 

155  @  4/  £31   36 

a  Drawing  bench  &  tongs  40/  11  Drawing  Irons  £11 

10  pair  of  shears  £6   19 

2  brass  Hollowin  stamps  £5  .  a  pair  of  brass  Salt 

punches   30/    6  10 

1  Tliimble  stamp  £4  .  10/  0  pr  of  llasks  for  casting 

£4    .10    9 

15  pair  of  tonj^s  &  plyers  @  .5/  a  pr.  75/  a  pair  of 

large  scales  and  weights  £8   11  15 

4  pair  of  small  scales  &  weights  40/  pewter  and  lead 

moulds  85  Id  @  1/0  £6  .7  .0 8  7  0 

36  old  files,  18/  12  strainers  12/  1  Oyl  Stove  25,  3 

sniall  saws  25    4 

4   boreax  boxes  .5/  3   burnishers   20/    1    Triblet   10 

2/  boiling  pans  60/    4  15 

a  parcell  of  punches  £o,  1  Touch  Stone  5/ 5  5 


124        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Mr.  Halsey  says :    "  I'lie  inventory  of  the  tools,  wliich  belonged  to 
John  Burt,  gives  between  its  lines  the  metliod  of  fashioning  employed 
by  the  Colonial  silversmith.     First,  the  bullion  was  melted  and  refined 
in  the  hoiling-pans,  the  fineness  of  the  alloy  tested  by  rubbing  on  a  touch- 
stone, and  the  resultant  streak  compared  with  a  streak  obtained  from 
silver  of  known  quality.     The  metal  was  then  remelted  and  run  into  a 
skillet  and  came  out  in  a  rectangular  form,  tliinner  than  an  ingot.     In 
tlio  making  of  hollow-ware  the  form  thus  obtained  was  rolled  out,  or 
hammered  on  the  Forgin  Anvil  into  a  sheet  of  the  requisite  thickness. 
In  the  fashioning  of  a  cup,  a  circle  was  cut  with  saws  or  shears  from  this 
sheet  of  silver;    the  diameter  of  this  is  somewhat  larger  than  tlie  con- 
tour of  the  vessel   desired.     This  circular  sheet  was  gently  hammered 
with  frequent  annealings,  over  a  teaster,  until  it  took  the  form  of  a  bowl, 
which  was  then  gradually  hammered  over  the  various  raising  anvils  and 
bellying  anvils  into  the  form  finally  desired.     For  work  on  the  interior 
of  the  vessel,  the  heak  irons  (anvils  with  long  beaks  or  horns,  adapted  to 
reach  the  interior  surface  of  hollow-ware)    were  used.     In  shaping  the 
vessel  much  use  was  made  of  stakes    (small  movable  anvils  of  various 
sizes  and  shapes,  which  stood  upon  small  iron  feet  on  the  work-bench). 
The  brilliant  facets,  which  covered  the  surface  of  all  of  our  early  silver, 
were  obtained  by  lightly  and  skilfully  beating  the  surface  of  the  sha])ed 
vessel  with  hammers  over  the  planishing  anvil,  both  hammer-head  and 
anvil   being  highly   polished.     The   strips   employed   for  rims,   handles, 
and  bases  were  made  on  the  drau-ing  hench — an  apparatus  in  which  the 
strip   of  metal   is   brought  to  an  exact  thickness   and  width  by   being 
drawn  tlirough  a  gaged  opening  made  by  two  cylinders  fastened  at  the 
required  distance  apart  and  prevented  from  rotating.     Handles,  finials, 
thumb-pieces,  tips  and  in  some  cases  spouts,  were  often  cast  in  pewter  or 
lead  tnoulds,  or  more  frequently  by  the  old  wax  process  in  which  the 
forms  sought  were  first  cast  in  wax.  and  then  were  embedded  in  moistened 
casting-sand  contained  in  casting -flasks.  This  sand  was  then  pounded  into 
an  almost  solid  mass  and  the  flasks  were  pixt  into  the  fire,  the  melted  wax 
run  off  and  replaced  by  molten  silver ;    the  rough  castings  thus  obtained 
were  then  finished  tip  with  sairs,  punches  and  files.     The  casting  was 
then  placed  on  a  pitch-block  and  the  surface  finished  with  punches.    De- 
fects in  the  casting  were  made  good  by  soldering  in  and  annealing  solid 
pieces  of  metal,  and  chasing  the  surface.     The  spoons,  as  a  rule,  were 
cut  or  stamped  out  of  thin  sheets  of  metal,  and  bowls  shaped  over  a 
teaster    and    planished    over    a    planishing    spoon-teastcr.        i^alts    and 
thimldes  were  punched  out  or  stamped  from  thin  sheets  of  metal.     The 
tnses,  horeax-hoxes,  and  oyl  stove  were  used  in  the  process  of  soldering 
on  the  bases,  handles,  rims,  etc." 


1 


TOP  AND  BOTTOM  OF  PATCH  BOX,  EARLY  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY,  UN- 
MARKED. TOP  OF  PATCH  BOX  BY  JOHN  WINDOVER,  1694-1726,  MARKED 
I  W  (IN   OVAL).  TEAPOT  AND   STAND   BY  PAUL   REVERE 

Clearwater  Collection,  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York  City 
Courtesy  of  the  Honourable  A.  T.  Clearwater,  Kingston-on-Hudson 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    125 

From  this  minute  description  of  the  purpose  and 
manner  of  using  each  of  the  sundry  tools  in  the  silver- 
smith's  outfit  one  may  form  an  accurate  idea  of  the 
jDrocesses  followed  in  manufacturing  the  silverware  of 
Colonial  days.  Briefly  epitomised,  one  may  say  that 
the  processes  engaged  in  included  rolling  the  metal  into 
thin  sheets  and  beating  it  into  the  required  shapes  upon 
anvils;  mounting  these  articles,  when  shaped,  upon 
pitch  or  cement  and  applying  decorative  patterns  witli 
punches  or  else  chasing  the  surface ;  casting  in  moulds 
and  finishing  by  filing  or  chasing  or,  in  the  case  of  cir- 
cular objects,  on  a  lathe;  at  a  later  period  ''spinning" 
hollow- ware  over  a  rapidly  revolving  mould ;  soldering 
or  riveting  the  several  pieces  together  when  finished; 
the  impressing  of  ornaments  with  a  roller  or  striking 
them  from  dies  and  then  applying  them  to  the  part  to 
be  decorated. 

ARTICLES  MADE 

Articles  of  silverware  made  by  early  American 
silversmiths  may  be  broadly  classified  as  Domestic  and 
Ecclesiastical.  Domestic  silver  may  be  subdivided,  ac- 
cording to  its  uses,  as  follows:  (1)  Silver  for  Eating 
and  Small  Table  Accessories;  (2)  Silver  for  Drinking 
Purposes;  (.'>)  Silver  for  Containing  or  Pouring;  and, 
finally,  (4)  Silver  for  Miscellaneous  Tal)le,  Household, 
and  l*ersonal  Uses. 

Silver  for  Eating  and  S:mall  Table  Acce8S(.)Uies. 
Spoons,  marrow  spoons,  forks,  knives  (the  handles), 
porringers,  plates,  platters,  salt  cellars,  muffineers, 
pepper  shakers,  nutmeg  graters,  chafing  dishes  or 
brasiers,  saucepans,  sauce-boats,  sugar  tongs,  trays, 
apple  corers,  casters,  cruet  stands,  and  coasters. 

Silver  for  Drinking  Purposes.    Cans,  cups,  stand- 


126        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

ing  cups,  goblets,  caudle  cups,  loving  cups  with  two  and 
three  handles,  mugs,  tankards,  beakers,  flip  straws, 
tumblers,  wdne  tasters. 

Silver  for  Containing  or  Pouring.  Bowls,  baskets, 
boxes,  coffee-pots,  pitchers,  creamers  or  cream  jugs, 
chocolate  pots,  sugar  bowls,  tea-caddies,  spout  cups, 
strainers,  flagons,  teapots,  urns,  cruets,  syphons, 
funnels,  and  punch  ladles. 

Silver  for  Miscellaneous  Table,  Household,  and 
Personal  Uses.  Buckles,  thimbles,  sconces,  candle 
snuffers,  candlesticks,  snuff'-boxes,  patch  boxes,  sword 
hilts,  whistles,  wine  labels,  trays. 

Besides  the  above,  other  special  pieces  for  sundry 
purposes  occasionally  come  to  light. 

Ecclesiastical  Silver  included  chalices,  patens, 
flagons,  beakers,  cups,  alms  basons,  collection  plates, 
and  baptismal  bowls  and  basons. 

CONTOUR 

It  has  been  found  expedient  to  make  a  somewhat 
arbitrary  division  of  American  silver  of  the  Colonial 
and  post-Colonial  periods  into  four  chronological  classi- 
fications. This  division,  nevertheless,  seems  warranted 
by  certain  general  groups  of  characteristic  contours 
that  coincide  pretty  nearly  with  the  classifications,  so 
that  the  method  resorted  to  is  justified  by  actual  facts. 
The  chief  reason  for  making  such  a  division,  besides  the 
convenience  thus  gained  for  classification  and  reference, 
was  to  direct  attention  to  the  striking  parallelisms  of 
contour  and  type  of  decorative  design  observable 
between  the  silver,  furniture,^  and  architecture  ^  of  any 

^v.  "Practical  Book  of  Period  Furniture'';  Eberlein  and  McClure. 
'  V.  "  The    Architecture    of    Colonial    America " ;    Eberlein :    Little, 
Brown  &  Co. 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    127 

given  perio(L  These  noteworthy  instances  of  similarity, 
while  doubtless  partly  attributable  to  fashion,  seem  to 
have  been  mainly  due  to  a  widely  diffused  and  dominant 
conception  of  line  prevalent  among  artists  and  crafts- 
men of  contemporary  date. 

For  the  sake  of  example,  attention  may  be  directed 
to  the  rotund,  swelling  curves  and  much-shaped  con- 
tours in  evidence  during  the  latter  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  and  the  early  years  of  the  eighteenth, 
in  the  reigns  of  William  and  Mary  and  of  Queen  Anne. 
In  architecture  the  profiles  of  mouldings  displayed  lines 
swelling  into  impressive  rotundity ;  the  panel  heads  of 
doors  were  shaped  and  curved;  the  bases  of  balusters 
on  the  stair  had  rotund  curving  contours  closely  resem- 
bling the  forms  of  contemporary  globular  or  globular 
and  cupolaed  teapots;  hoods  above  house-doors  were 
arched  and  coved,  sometimes  enriched  with  carving  in 
the  cockle-shell  motif,  and  supported  on  shaped 
brackets ;  pediments  over  doorways  were  often  curved 
in  arcs,  and,  in  a  dozen  other  ways,  a  tendency  toward 
well-rounded  lines  was  abundantly  manifest. 

In  furniture  we  see  the  prevalence  of  the  cabriole 
leg;  chair  seats  were  rounded  at  the  corners  and  in 
front;  backs  were  spooned;  the  double-hooded  motif 
was  common  both  in  cabinet  work  and  settee  backs, 
while  panels  and  mirror  frames  echoed  the  same 
swelling  curves. 

In  silver  of  the  period  there  is  visible  a  striking  cor- 
respondence to  the  foregoing  contour  characteristics, 
especially  in  teapots,  tankards,  porringers,  and  cups, 
which  the  reader  may  easily  discern  by  looking  at  the 
illustrations,  particularly  those  in  the  chronological  key 


128       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

at  the  beginning  of  the  chapter.    The  shapes  are  instinct 
with  elegance,  but  it  is  a  rotund,  Dutch  elegance. 

Again,  in  the  Adam  period  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  oval  and  the  parabolic  curve 
were  in  high  favour  and  fashion.  In  architecture  we 
see  the  oval  in  the  shape  of  rooms  and  in  various  forms 
of  applied  decoration.  Close  akin  to  the  oval  is  the  oft- 
recurring  urn  motif,  either  as  a  flat  decoration  or  as  a 
modelled  form. 

In  furniture  we  see  half-oval-topped  side  tables  and 
consoles,  oval  chair  backs  and  a  numerous  display  of 
kindred  ovals  and  of  urn-shaped  finials.  One  point, 
however,  should  be  remembered  in  this  connexion, 
respecting  both  architecture  and  furniture — although 
curved  lines  appeared  in  structural  work  as  an 
occasional  variant  to  the  dominant  rectilinear  features, 
they  were  not  lines  of  structural  support,  save  in  the 
case  of  chair  backs,  but  were  purely  decorative  in 
function.  Barring  this  occasional  exception  and 
the  fashioning  of  urns  and  vases,  lines  in  a  per- 
pendicular plane  w^ere  not  curved  or  shaped,  and  the 
shaped  lines  occurred  in  a  horizontal  plane.  The  types 
of  decorative  detail  common  to  architecture  and  furni- 
ture included  the  familiar  swags  and  drops,  pendent 
husks,  round  and  oval  paterae,  oval  and  spandrel  fans, 
sundry  vase  and  urn  shapes  and  similar  motifs  which 
it  is  not  necessary  to  enumerate  in  full. 

Turning  to  the  silver  of  the  period,  we  find  precisely 
the  same  principles  of  design  in  fashion,  with  only 
occasional  and  insignificant  modifications.  To  verify 
this  statement,  the  reader  is  again  referred  to  the  illus- 
trations, and  especially  to  the  Revere  teapot,  which  is 
a  silver  embodiment  of  the  contemporary  Adam  spirit 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    129 

both  in  its  contour  and  in  point  of  engraved  surface 
ornamentation.  No  end  will  be  served  by  multiplying 
instances  of  parallelisms ;  they  are  sufficiently  obvious 
to  be  readily  discerned  in  the  other  periods  also. 

This  series  of  correspondences  between  silver,  furni- 
ture, and  architecture  cannot  be  regarded  as  the  result 
of  purely  fortuitous  happening.  It  has  a  definite  mean- 
ing for  us,  and,  if  it  shows  anything  at  all,  it  proves  the 
close  kinship  existing  between  architecture  and  the  dec- 
orative arts  and  it  emphasises  the  necessity  of  becom- 
ing reasonably  familiar  with  all  the  art  and  craft 
manifestations  of  a  period  if  we  would  fully  understand 
any  one  of  them,  for  none  of  them  stood  alone,  but  each 
bore  some  relation  to  the  others  and  was,  in  turn, 
influenced  by  them. 

Inasmuch  as  the  majority  of  early  American  silver- 
smiths were  of  either  British  birth  and  training  or  of 
British  descent,  we  naturally  expect  to  find  in  their 
handiwork  a  perpetuation  of  British  methods  and  a 
loyal  adherence  to  English  types  of  design,  progressing 
almost  contemporaneously — new  styles  were  generally 
just  a  few  years  later  in  making  their  appearance  in 
America  than  in  England — with  the  march  of  fashions 
in  the  Mother-Couutrv.  The  close  adherence  to  English 
design  w^as  not  only  a  matter  of  tradition,  but  also  a 
matter  of  preference,  ''for  the  Colonials  gloried  in  the 
name  of  Englishmen,  and  loved  the  customs  of  the  old 
country,"  which  they  followed  with  punctilious  and 
affectionate  exactitude,  a  point  of  view  that  persisted 
even  after  the  Revolution,  for  Washington  and  his  fel- 
low-founders of  our  government,  fully  realising  the 
oneness  of  our  blood  with  that  of  the  parent  stock, 
regarded  themselves  as  Englishmen — American  Eng- 
9 


130        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

lishmen,  to  be  sure — till  their  dying  day,  and  would 
have  repelled  indignantly  any  insinuation  to  the  con- 
trary. American  silver,  it  is  true,  was,  as  a  rule, 
simpler  than  much  of  contemporary  English  make,  and, 
in  a  few  cases,  minor  modifications,  some  of  which  were 
of  purely  local  occurrence,  w^ere  made  by  the  Colonial 
smiths,  but  in  the  main  the  resemblance  was  so  strong 
as  to  amount  to  virtual  identity. 

Only  one  other  influence,  beside  the  English,  in  the 
design  of  American  silver  has  to  be  seriously  con- 
sidered, and  that  is  the  Dutch,  which  was,  of  course, 
strongest  in  New  York  and  was  never  more  than  local, 
being  confined  to  the  sections  of  the  country  adjacent 
to,  and  in  close  and  constant  contact  with,  Manhattan. 

The  design  of  both  English  and  American  silver 
was  subject  in  certain  respects  to  an  influence  exerted 
by  contemporary  porcelain  and  pottery,  wliicli  seem  to 
have  suggested  contours  to  the  silver  craftsmen,  who 
were  no  more  averse  to  taking  a  cue,  now  and  then^ 
from  Oriental  sources  than  were  the  designers  of  fur- 
niture or  the  weavers  of  textiles.  This  ceramic  in- 
fluence may  be  especially  traced  in  some  of  the  teapots 
and  bowls.  One  can  easily  see  the  resemblance  to  porce- 
lain contours  in  such  silver  objects  as  the  little  covered 
bowl  (Key  II,  11),  very  like  a  china  bouillon  cup,  or 
the  globular  teapot  (Key  I,  4). 

The  divisions  adopted  for  the  chronological  key 
which  seem  best  to  exemplify  and  bear  out  the  corre- 
spondences to  which  attention  has  been  called  are  as 
follows:  (I)  Late  Seventeenth  and  Early  Eighteenth 
Century  (synchronous  with  the  late  Stuart,  William 
and  Mary  and  Queen  Anne  forms  in  furniture  and  archi- 
tecture) ;  (II)  Middle  Eighteenth  Century  (synchron- 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    131 

ous  with  Early  Georgian  forms) ;  (III)  Late  Eighteenth 
Century  (sjTichronous  with  late  Georgian,  especially 
Adam  forms) ;  (IV)  Early  Nineteenth  Centurj^  (syn- 
chronous with  Empire  forms  in  furniture  and  Classic 
Revival  forms  in  architecture). 

SILVER  FOR  EATING  AND  SMALL  TABLE  ACCESSORIES 

Spoons  typical  of  the  1st  division  (Key  I,  1),  the 
latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  had  oval  or 
elliptical  bowls,  instead  of  fig-shaped  bowls,  as  did  the 
English  spoons  of  an  earlier  date.  The  stem  was  flat, 
instead  of  round  or  hexagonal,  as  previously;  the  end 
of  the  handle  was  flattened,  broad,  and  notched  by  two' 
clefts  to  make  three  points  or  projections,  somewhat  in 
the  manner  of  a  trefoil ;  the  end  of  this  trifid  handle  was 
also  turned  up.  The  junction  of  the  handle  or  stem  with 
the  bowl  was  continued  and  reinforced  by  a  tongue  or 
grooved  *' rat-tail"  on  the  back  or  convex  surface  of 
the  bowl  (Key  I,  2).  This  trifid  form  of  spoon  is  some- 
times known  as  the  ** hind's  foot  and  rat-tail"  pattern, 
and  continued  to  be  made  into  the  early  years  of  the 
eighteenth  century  (till  about  1730). 

In  the  forms  typical  of  the  2d  division  we  find,  from 
about  1725  to  1750,  the  rat-tail  extending  down  the  back 
of  the  bowl,  well  defined,  but  without  grooves  (Key  II, 
7).  It  is  an  extension  of  the  drop  which  reinforces  the 
junction  of  the  handle  and  bowl  and  is  now  more  pro- 
nounced than  formerly.  The  bowl  itself  is  more  egg- 
shaped  and  tapering  towards  the  end.  The  end  of  the 
handle,  instead  of  being  notched  or  trifid,  is  rounded 
and  turned  up.  The  stem  is  no  longer  flat,  but  rounded, 
at  least  in  front,  near  the  bowl  (Key  II,  6),  and  the 
rounded  and  turned-up  end  is  marked  by  a  prominent 


132        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

mid-rib  (Key  II,  6).  From  about  1750  to  1770,  while 
the  moulded  drop  at  junction  of  handle  and  bowl  was 
the  essential  method  of  reinforcement,  and  often  more 
pronounced  and  longer  than  in  earlier  spoons  (Key  II, 
3),  a  decorative  device  w^as  sometimes  added  on  the 
bottom  of  the  bowl,  such  as  the  cockle-shell  on  the 
Revere  spoon  (Key  II,  5)  and  the  small  spoon  (Key  II, 
2).  The  end  of  the  handle  is  still  turned  up  (Key  II, 
1  and  4) ,  and  the  mid-rib  on  the  front  is  much  less  con- 
spicuous, almost  disappearing  in  some  cases  (Key  II,  1). 

In  spoons  of  the  3d  division,  from  about  1760  to 
1800,  one  sigiiificant  change  is  that  the  rounded  ends 
of  the  handles  are  turned  down  (Key  III,  1-8).  The 
moulded  drop  at  junction  of  bowl  and  handle,  w^hile  dis- 
tinctly in  evidence,  does  not  usually  extend  so  far  down 
the  bowl  as  in  previous  examples.  Scroll  embellish- 
ments, as  on  the  Revere  spoon  (Key  III,  8),  cockle- 
shells (Key  III,  6),  birds,  or  floral  subjects  were  some- 
times added  at  the  termination  of  the  drop.  The  front 
of  the  handle  and  stem  often  became  a  subject  for 
elaborate  ornamentation  in  ''bright-cut"  engraving 
from  the  end  to  the  bowl  (Key  III,  7)  in  a  pattern  of 
essentially  Adam  provenance  (Key  III,  7  and  3).  From 
about  1780  to  1800  the  handles  became  lighter  and  the 
ends  were  more  pointed  (Key  III,  1,  2,  3,  and  4)  than 
at  an  earlier  date.  Throughout  this  division  bowls 
tended  to  become  more  tapering  toward  the  end. 

In  spoons  of  the  4th  division,  from  about  1800  to 
1815,  the  ends  continue  turned  down  and  are  frequently 
of  the  shape  known  as  ''coffin-headed"  (Key  IV,  1,  2, 
3,  and  4).  The  bowls  are  distinctly  more  pointed  than 
previously.     The  pattern  of  the  engraving  on  these 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    133 

spoon-handles  is  still  plainly  reminiscent  of  Adam  de- 
sign. The  drop  at  the  junction  of  handle  and  bowl  is 
much  flattened  and  less  pronounced  (Key  IV,  1  and  3). 
From  about  1810  onward,  spoons  of  the  ''fiddle- 
headed"  pattern  (Key  IV,  5  and  6)  came  into  vogue 
with  a  sharp,  angular  shoulder  on  each  side  of  the  stem 
just  above  the  bowl  (Key  IV,  5  and  G) .  In  some  of  these 
later  spoons,  all  of  which  show  a  deterioration  in  design 
after  1815  or  1820,  when  the  Adam  influence  had  ceased 
to  be  an  appreciable  factor,  the  head  of  the  handle  is 
turned  up  (Key  IV,  6),  thus  showing  a  reversion  to 
an  earlier  custom,  while  in  others  it  is  turned  down. 
Likewise,  in  numerous  instances,  the  moulded  drop  at 
tlie  junction  of  bowl  and  handle  is  omitted  (Key  IV,  5), 
but  in  others  it  persists. 

A  comparison  of  the  chronological  key-plates  will 
show  that  both  types  and  individual  characteristics  per- 
sisted from  one  period  to  another,  and  that  fashions 
overlapped  to  some  extent,  just  as  they  did  in  furniture 
and  architecture,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  that  this 
or  that  style  began  at  such  a  date  and  ended  at  such 
another;  but  the  stages  of  evolution  are  sufBciently 
defined  to  justify  the  assignment  of  the  several  dis- 
tinctive types  to  approximate  periods  of  time,  periods 
of  w^liich  one  type  was  representative  and  numerically 
in  the  ascendant. 

Most  of  the  spoons  illustrated  are  of  large  size, 
about  the  size  of  our  dessert-spoons  or  slightly  larger, 
and  many  are  the  size  of  the  largest  modern  table- 
spoons. This  average  is  representative  of  the  relative 
numbers  in  the  Colonial  period.  Tea-spoons  followed 
the  styles  of  the  larger  spoons,  but  were  not  found 


134       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

in  any  considerable  number  before  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Some  notion  of  the  disparity  in 
sizes  of  both  large  and  small  spoons  may  be  obtained 
by  looking  at  Fig.  1.  Tea-spoons  were  not  of  a  standard 
size  any  more  than  were  the  large  spoons.  Many  of 
the  old  tea-spoons  are  of  smaller  bowl  and  shorter 


Fig.  1.  A,  Table-spoon  with  "Bright  Cut"  engraving,  by   Underhill  &   Vernon,   New 
Yoik,c.  1796. 

B,  Spoon  of  Second  Period,  with  "Rat  Tail"  and  initials  in  back. 

C,  Spoon  of  Second  Period  with  Crest  and  initial  engraved  on  back  of  handle. 

D,  Small  Tea-spoon  of  Third  Period. 

E,  Small  Tea-spoon  of  Third  Period  with  shell  ornament  on  bowl. 

Courtesy  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

handle  than  the  modern  tea-spoon  (Fig.  1,  D  and  E),  and 
we  can  well  understand,  in  looking  at  their  dimensions, 
how  they  could  easily  and  without  any  suggestion  of 
clumsiness  be  laid  across  the  tops  of  the  small,  handle- 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    135 

less  tea-cups  as  an  indication  that  one  desired  no 
more  tea.^ 

Salt-spoons  were  fashioned  like  the  larger  spoons, 
except  for  their  circular  or  wide  bowls. 

Maerow-spoons  began  to  be  used  about  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  early  forms  had  the 
ordinary  bowl,  while  the  handle  was  made  into  a  long, 
narrow  scoop.  The  later  spoons  of  this  sort  had  scoops 
at  both  ends,  one  of  which  was  usually  longer  and 
narrower  tlian  the  other. 

Forks,  although  common  enough  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  have  rarely  survived  the  vicissitudes  of  time 
and  usage.  They  became  worn  and  damaged  much 
more  quickly  and  easily  than  spoons,  and  most  of  them, 
therefore,  found  their  way  back  to  the  melting-pot. 
Some  were  wholly  of  silver,  such  as  the  pair  by  John 
Noyes  (Boston,  IGZ'J— 1749),  now  in  the  Boston  Museum, 
wdiile  others  had  only  silver  handles,  the  prongs  or 
tines  being  of  steel  or  other  metal.  The  handles  usually 
followed  the  handles  of  contemporary  spoons  in  shape 
and  manner  of  decoration.  While  the  forks  by  Noyes 
had  only  two  prongs,  we  find  three-pronged  forks  be- 


3"  An  amusing  incident,  illustrative  of  the  customs  of  the  time,  oc- 
curred at  the  house  of  Urs.  Robert  :Morris  upon  the  occasion  of  the 
Chevalier  de  la  Luzerne  taking  the  Prince  de  Broglie  into  that  hos- 
pitable household.  The  Prince  writes:  'Monsieur  de  la  Luzerne  con- 
ducted me  to  the  house  of  Mrs.  Morris  to  tea.  I  partook  of  most 
excellent  tea,  and  I  should  be  even  now  drinking  it,  I  believe,  if  tlie 
Ambassador  had  not  charitably  notified  me  at  the  twelfth  cup  that  I 
must  put  my  spoon  across  it  when  I  wished  to  finish  with  this  sort  of 
warm  water.  -He  said  to  me:  "It  is  almost  as  ill-bred  to  refuse  a  cup 
of  tea  when  it  is  offered  to  you  as  it  would  be  for  the  mistress  of  the 
house  to  propose  a  fresh  one  when  the  ceremony  of  the  spoon  has  notified 
her  that  we  no  longer  wish  to  partake  of  it."  '  "— "  Colonial  Homes  of 
Philadelphia  and  Its  Neighbourhood,"  Eberlein  and  Lippincott. 


136       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

fore  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  for  Peter 
Faneuil  with  some  ostentation  ordered  from  England 
about  1738,  ' '  one  dozen  silver  forks  with  three  prongs, 
with  my  arms  cut  upon  them,  made  very  neat  and  hand- 
some." 

Knives  were  occasionally  made  with  silver  handles, 
but  they  were  rare,  the  majority  having  bone  grasps. 
Butter  knives  were  made,  toward  the  end  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  with  both  handle  and  blade  of  silver. 

PoRKiNGEEs,  big  and  little,  were  much  used  during 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  but  particu- 
larly during  the  early  and  middle  portion  of  the  latter, 
and  so  commonly  performed  the  office  of  general  utility 
vessels  that  it  is  well-nigh  impossible  to  fix  upon  any 
one  specific  use  for  which  they  were  intended.  They 
are  also  known  as  ' '  wine  tasters ' '  and ' '  bleeding  cups, ' ' 
the  latter  in  allusion  to  the  leech's  habitual  practice  of 
profuse  bloodletting  upon  every  possible  occasion. 
Necessity  has  always  been  the  mother  of  invention,  and 
our  Colonial  forebears  were  much  too  inventive,  re- 
sourceful, and  practical  to  devote  numerous  silver  and 
pewter  vessels  of  this  type  solely  to  the  requirements 
of  the  physician.  If  porringers  were  used  in  the  opera- 
tion of  bloodletting,  it  was  because  they  were  the 
handiest  article  that  chance  presented,  and  probably 
only  a  small  proportion  of  them  were  ever  so  employed. 
Their  customary  use  was,  doubtless,  on  the  table  to 
hold  jam,  honey,  or  even  vegetables,  and  the  complete 
absence  of  sugar  bowls  of  a  very  early  date  justifies 
one  in  supposing  that  they  were  also  used  to  contain 
sugar.  Upon  this  strong  probability,  a  porringer 
(Key  V,  12)  has  been  placed  as  the  first  in  a  line  of 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    137 

clironologically  arranged  representative  sugar  bowls  of 
early  American  make  and  use. 

The  handles  were  of  flat  open-work  in  geometrical 
or  tracery  designs  (Fig,  2,  A)  or  else  of  the  later  ''key- 
hole" type,  convenient  for  hanging  from  a  hook  on  the 
dresser.  The  howls  were  of  various  dimensions  and 
depths.  Sometimes  the  sides  were  flaring  (Fig.  2,  B), 
sometimes  they  swelled  out  and  returned  inward  near 


Fig.  2.    A,  Porringer,  top  view,  by  Richard  Humphreys,  Philadelphia,  c.  1775; 

B,  side  view  of  same. 

C.  Hartman  Kuhn  Collection.    Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

the  top.     Both  of  these  contour  types  are  well  shown  in 
one  of  the  accompanying  plates. 

Plates  and  plattees,  while  usually  made  of  pewter, 
were  sometimes  found  of  silver,  in  very  limited  num- 
bers, in  the  houses  of  the  most  wealthy.  Although  the 
Thomas  Hancock  plate,  shown  in  one  of  the  illustra- 
tions, was  a  piece  of  church  silver,  the  same  form  was 
followed  when  no  ecclesiastical  use  was  intended.  In 
other  words,  save  for  the  difference  in  metal,  silver 


138       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

plates  and  platters  were  very  like  their  fellows  in 
pewter.  Several  reasons  may  be  assigned  for  the  com- 
parative scarcity  of  silver  plates  and  platters.  In  the 
first  place,  a  large  percentage  of  them,  where  they  did 
exist,  were  no  doubt  melted  down  during  the  financial 
stress  of  the  Revolutionary  era.  A  much  commoner 
reason  was  that,  by  the  time  a  large  class  of  the  colonists 
had  reached  sufficient  affluence  to  be  able  to  afford 
silver  plates  and  platters,  attention  was  directed  rather 
to  the  importation  of  fine  Oriental  services  for  the 
equipment  of  the  table.  A  third  and  last  reason  is  that 
a  very  considerable  number  of  the  gentle-born  and 
wealthier  colonists,  who  were  likely  to  possess  such 
articles,  were  Loyalists,  and  their  silver  was  either  con- 
fiscated or  else  taken  with  them  when  they  fled  to 
Halifax  or  returned  to  England. 

Salts,  like  spoons,  teapots,  and  several  other 
articles,  were  strongly  characteristic  in  design  of  the 
period  of  their  manufacture.  In  the  1st  division  we 
have  the  circular  salt  with  a  broad  flaring  base  to 
obviate  the  danger  of  upsetting,  possibly  a  willing  con- 
cession to  the  old  superstition.  The  particular  salt  with 
the  gadrooned  base  and  gadrooned  rim  al  the  top, 
around  the  edge  of  the  shallow  well,  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration (Key  I,  8),  is  one  of  a  pair  made  in  1665,  pre- 
sumably in  New  York,  for  Helena  Willet,  the  daughter 
of  Thomas  Willet,  the  first  English-speaking  Mayor  of 
New  Y^ork.  There  is  no  maker's  name  nor  mark.  It 
is  substantially  the  same  as  some  of  the  better  designed 
trencher  salts,  and  may  be  considered  as  a  link  in  the 
evolution  from  the  ' '  standing  salt, ' '  by  whose  place  on 
the  table  the  station  of  those  sitting  at  the  board  was 
indicated,  to  the  individual  salt  or  the  pairs  of  salts  for 


SIU^R;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    139 

the  common  benefit  of  family  and  guests.  Salts  of  a 
similar  pattern  in  pewter  are  not  unusual.  This  type 
doubtless  continued  to  be  made  till  well  into  the  first 
quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

In  the  2d  division,  salts  of  the  pattern  shown  in 
Key  II,  16  may  be  regarded  as  typical  from  about  1730 
onward.  The  round  bowl  is  supported  on  three  cabriole 
legs  with  hoofs  or  hind's  feet — an  item  of  resemblance 
to  certain  chair  legs  of  a  not  much  earlier  date. 

In  the  3d  division, — that  is,  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century, — the  prevailing  taste  for 
ovals  and  urn  contours  is  evidenced  in  the  characteristic 
example  shown  in  Key  III,  9.  The  contrast  between 
this  type,  with  its  flaring  top  rising  from  a  pedestal,  a 
type  beautiful  but  easily  upset,  and  the  staunch  seven- 
teenth-century type  of  Key  I,  8,  possibly  indicates  some 
weakening  of  the  superstition  anent  spilling  salt. 

In  the  4th  division,  the  early  nineteenth  century, 
heavy  glass  salts  were  largely  used,  but  those  made  of 
silver  followed,  in  general,  the  oblong,  swelling  contours 
to  be  seen  in  so  many  of  the  tea-pots  and  sugar  bowls 
of  the  period. 

Pepper  Boxes  appeared  in  the  first  half  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  A  common  form  was  between  three 
and  four  inches  high,  had  octagonal  or  round  barrel, 
straight  sides,  a  moulded  base,  encircling  moulded 
bands  near  the  top  and  bottom,  a  thin  scrolh^d  handle 
and  a  perforated  drum-like  cover  either  with  or  with- 
out a  finial.  In  exhibitions  they  are  sometimes  cata- 
logued as  sugar  sifters.  As  a  matter  of  fact  they 
would  answer  either  purpose  and  were  doubtless  so 
used  as  inclination  dictated. 


140       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Castees  appeared  about  the  middle  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  ultimate 
development  of  the  pepper  box.  If  one  preferred  to 
use  them  as  sugar  sifters,  they  were  practically  analo- 
gous to  the  English  muffineers.  They  were  usually  be- 
tween five  and  six  inches  high,  had  a  splayed  moulded 
foot,  a  shaped  cylindrical  body,  tapering  slightly  to- 
ward the  top  and  bellied  prominently  outward  in 
bulbous  fashion  at  the  bottom,  and  a  high  domed  cover 
or  lid,  perforated  and  surmounted  by  a  finial.  A  slightly 
earlier  form  was  not  quite  so  tall ;  had  a  larger  pear- 
shaped  moulded  body  and  a  low,  convex  perforated  cap 
or  cover  without  finial. 

Nutmeg  Geaters,  Apple  Coeers,  and  various  other 
similar  pieces  of  small  silver  table  accessories  rarely 
appeared  before  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  and,  in  general,  followed  the 
more  important  pieces  in  the  matter  of  contour  and 
decoration. 

Ceuet  Stands  and  Gtalleried  Coasters  likewise  were 
comparatively  late  pieces  of  table  service  refinement 
for  which  it  is  useless  to  look  much  before  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century. 

Chafing  Dishes  or  Beasiees  were  made  at  an  early 
date  and  continued  to  be  made  throughout  the 
eighteenth  century  and  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth. 
They  displayed  great  elegance  of  pattern  and  beauty 
of  workmanship.  There  was  little  significant  change  in 
details  of  contour  or  decoration,  and  the  example  shown 
in  Fig.  3  will  convey  an  adequate  idea  of  the  class.  The 
handles  were  of  wood. 

Saucepans  with  lids  and  spouts  (Fig.  4),  sides  taper- 
ing outwards  towards  the  top,  and  wooden  handles  were 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    141 

made  in  considerable  numbers  during  the  eighteenth 
century.  They  were  of  elegant  shape,  but  usually  with- 
out decoration.  Occasionally  the  sides  were  straight, 
at  other  times  they  swelled  outward  tow^ard  the  bottom. 
Sauce-boats,  dating  from  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  were  somewhat  similar  to  cream 


Fig.  3.  Small  Chafing  Dish  or  Brasier  by  Pliilip  Syng,  the  younger,  Philadelphia,  c.  17S0. 
C.  Hartman  Kuhn  Collection.    Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

pitchers  in  general  contour,  but  had  a  longer  body  and 
wider  spout. 

Trays  of  sundry  shapes  came  into  use  about  the 
third  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century,  sometimes  rest- 


FiG.  4.    Saucepan  by  Joseph  Richardson,  Philadelphia,  c.  179G. 
C,  Hartman  Kuhn  Collection.    Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

ing  flat  on  the  table  and  sometimes  supported  on  legs 
{v.  illustration  of  Revere  tea-pot).  The  legs  also  fre- 
quently resembled  those  of  salts  or  cream  pitcliers 
(Key  II,  12  and  16).  They  had  raised  rims,  flaring 
edges  or  galleries,  as  the  case  might  be,  and  were  often 
ornately  engraved. 


142        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Sugar  Tongs  came  into  use  fairly  early  in  the  eight- 
eenth century.  The  pair  shown  in  the  illustration  dates 
from  about  1730.  This  ''scissors"  type,  with  its  grace- 
ful scrolls,  was  cast  and  then  filed,  and  the  plates  cover- 
ing the  pivot  were  sometimes  beautifully  engraved. 
The  later  types,  belonging  to  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century  and  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth, 
were  generally  in  the  form  of  tongs  and  made  from  a 
single  piece  of  metal,  bent  into  proper  shape,  with  nip- 
per ends  for  grasping  the  lump  of  sugar.  In  contour 
and  decoration  they  resembled  the  other  characteristic 
pieces  of  contemporary  date. 

Cake  Baskets  were  made  late  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury and  continued  in  favour  during  the  succeeding 
period.  They  corresponded  with  the  general  style  of 
the  other  contemporary  silver  and  were  usually  fretted 
and  also  elaborately  chased  or  engraved.  In  shape 
they  were  usually  round  or  oval  with  a  handle  in  the 
manner  of  a  basket  and  ordinarily  stood  on  a  slightly 
raised  base.  In  some  cases  they  were  designed  with 
a  raised  base  or  pedestal  but  lacked  the  handle. 

SILVER  FOR  DRINKING  PURPOSES 

All  the  sundry  drinking  vessels  of  early  American 
manufacture,  by  their  great  number  and  variety,  bear 
eloquent  witness  to  the  universally  prevalent  bibulous 
habits  of  our  forebears.  They  are  found  in  every  section 
of  the  country,  and  the  contours  of  the  several  mem- 
bers of  the  group  show  an  evolution  comparable  to 
that  in  other  articles,  but  no  appreciable  diminu- 
tion in  numbers  during  the  period  with  which  we  are 
concerned. 


IIOLVUKK  Ali.M?;;  lOXAMI'LLoI'  Ili:i; A LDIC  EXGKAN  IXLl 
CLP  OH  BKAKKK    HY  SA.MIKI,   DKOWXE,  174'.t-l.si5 
KEPOL.-^SK  AXD   CHA.SED 

Clearwater  Collection,  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  Xew  York 
Courtcsv   of    the    Honourable   A.  T.  Clearwater,    Kingston-on- 

Hudson 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    143 

Cans  or  Cups  with  Handles  were  virtually  the  same 
thing,  and,  if  any  distinction  is  to  be  drawn,  it  is  that 
the  term  can  is  of  early  use  and  seems  preferably  to  be 
applied  to  vessels  of  more  generous  capacity  than  the 
other  appellation.  Both  varieties  seem  to  have  been 
evolved  from  the  bowl  with  handles,  a  vessel  seemingly 
used  to  drink  from  upon  some  occasions.  Akin  to  the 
two-  or  even  three-handled  bowls  were  the  large  two- 
handled  loving-cups  with  covers,  belonging  to  the  latter 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century  and  the  early  part  of 
the  eighteenth.  The  great  loving-cup  with  cover  and 
two  handles,  made  by  John  Cony  and  presented  to 
Harvard  in  1701  by  the  Honourable  William  Stoughton, 
is  an  admirable  example  of  this  type,  apparently  the 
nearest  relative  of  the  can  or  cup. 

Cans  or  cups  of  the  1st  chronological  division,  em- 
bracing the  latter  years  of  the  seventeenth  century  and 
the  fore  part  of  the  eighteenth,  were  of  various  heights 
and  diameters,  with  either  one  or  two  thin,  ear-shaped 
handles,  moulded  bases,  and  straight  or  nearly  straight 
perpendicular  sides  with  an  outward  flare  at  the  top. 
This  type  (Key  V,  3,  and  Key  II,  14)  continued  to  bo 
made  during  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It 
"was  especially  in  favour  in  New  England.  The  two- 
handled  type  went  out  of  fashion  before  its  one-handled 
brother.  A  heavier  handle,  of  the  same  pattern  as  the 
tankard  handle  or  the  handle  of  contemporary  mugs 
{v.  mug  by  Cesar  Ghiselin  in  one  of  the  plate  illustra- 
tions), was  also  used  at  the  same  time. 

Cans  or  cups  of  the  2d  division  included  both  the 
type  just  described  and  also  a  barrel-shaped  variety, 
encircled  with  hoops  or  bands  {v.  plate  illustration  of 
the  can  immediately  beneath  the  mug  by  Ghiselin). 


144       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

An  exact  technical  distinction  may  be  drawn  between 
cups  or  cans  and  mugs  by  saying  that  the  cup  or  can 
had  a  rounded  bottom,  stood  upon  a  splayed,  moulded 
or  reeded  base  and  had  sides  shaped  either  much  or  little 
— either  a  slight,  beaker-like  flare  (Key  II,  14)  or  a  pro- 
nounced contour  with  pear-like  bellying  (Key  V,  6  and 
7).  A  mug,  in  the  other  hand,  was  derived  from  a  tank- 
ard and  its  essential  points  of  difference  from  its  cup 
or  can  relative  consisted  in  its  having,  beaker-like  and 
tankard-like,  a  ^iat  bottom  with  moulded  base  and 


Fig.  5.    Can  or  Cup  by  Joseph  Richardson,  Philadelphia,  1796. 
C.  Hartman  Kuhn  Collection.    Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art, 

straight  sides,  either  tapering  tankard-like  toward  the 
top  or  perpendicular  (Key  V,  1,  2  and  4). 

Mugs,  to  all  practical  intent,  however,  were  identical 
w^ith  cans  or  cups,  except  in  point  of  their  immediate 
tankard  ancestry — they  were  really  small,  lidless  tank- 
ards— whose  straight  sides,  tapering  inw^ard  toward  the 
top,  and  scroll  handles  they  closely  followed.  They 
were  made  both  w^ith  bands  (Key  V,  1  and  2,  and 
Ghiselin  mug,  plate  illustration)  and  without  bands. 
These  were  of  the  earliest  type.  A  later  banded  type 
may  be  seen  in  Key  II,  15. 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    145 

From  the  middle  of  the  eightenth  century  onward, 
mug  and  can  types  become  so  closely  identified  that  a 
separate  classification  would  only  cause  confusion.  We 
find  a  variety  with  splayed  and  moulded  base,  a  swell- 
ing, bulbous  lower  part,  a  shaped  and  outward  curving 
upper  part,  and  shaped  scroll  handle  (Key  V,  6  and  7) 
or  a  plain  S  handle  (Fig.  5),  w^hile  later  on,  in  the  early 
nineteenth  century,  along  with  this  type,  which  seems 
to  have  maintained  its  popularity,  there  is  to  be  seen 
much  the  same  form,  though  with  less  pronouncedly 
shaped  sides,  on  a  pedestal  or  baluster  base  (Key  IV,  9) 
and,  besides  this,  there  was  likewise  a  frequent  re- 
version or  approximation  to  a  much  earlier  model,  such 
as  the  examples  shown  in  Key  IV,  14  and  15. 

Beakers  were  tall,  tumbler-shaped  vessels  whose 
form  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  Holland.  They 
w^ere  never  as  popular  as  cans  or  mugs,  and  the  ex- 
amples, therefore,  are  not  so  numerous  as  in  the  case  of 
many  other  domestic  articles.  The  simplest  type  was 
plain,  with  sides  tapering  towards  the  bottom,  w^hich 
was  flat.  Frequently  the  upper  part  flared  outwards. 
A  moulding  {v.  plate  illustration  of  Dutch  beaker  by 
unknown  maker  and  Key  I,  7)  was  next  added,  or  a 
splayed  moulded  foot.  There  w^as  also  a  form  (accord- 
ing to  the  foregoing  strict  definition,  a  cup)  with 
moulded  foot  and  the  lower  part  of  the  body  gadrooned 
(Key  I,  9).  Occasionally  an  example  is  found  with 
ornate  embellishment,  such  as  the  beaker  wdth  acanthus 
base  in  high  relief  {v.  plate  illustration)  and  decorated 
band  a  little  below  the  mouth.  The  Dutch  beakers 
{v.  plate  illustration  and  Figs.  8  and  9)  were  much  more 
apt  to  be  ornately  engraved  than  beakers  by  smiths  of 
English  descent  and  tradition.    In  contour,  beakers  re- 

10 


146        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

mained  much  the  same,  and  some  of  the  slightly  differ- 
ing forms  were  made  contemporaneously,  so  that  it  is 
not  advisable  to  attempt  to  classify  them  in  a  chrono- 
logical contour  sequence.  The  beaker  may  have  a 
handle. 

Standing  Cups  and  Goblets  on  baluster  stems,  with 
moulded  foot,  while  sometimes  made  at  an  early  date 
for  domestic  use,  belonged  rather  to  the  very  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  and  the  first  part  of  the  nineteenth 
as  articles  of  domestic  appointment.  The  great  ma- 
jority of  early  examples  belonged  to  church  sets  and 
are,  therefore,  treated  under  Ecclesiastical  Silver. 

Wine  Tastees  were  very  small,  flat  cups  of  por- 
ringer shape,  sometimes  with  a  scroll  handle,  at  others 
with  a  flat  handle  like  that  of  a  porringer.  The  sides 
were  either  plain  or  gadrooned.  They  were  not 
numerous. 

Tumblers  were  the  same  as  small  beakers. 

Caudle  Cups  were  two-handled  mugs  or  cups,  of  low 
stature  and  of  swelling  pear-like  contour  in  the  lower 
part.  They  belong  especially  to  the  last  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  and  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth. 
Their  characteristics  closely  resemble  those  of  con- 
temporary mugs  and  cups. 

Flip  Straws  were  long-stemmed  tubes  with  enlarged 
ends  for  stirring  flip,  and  were  pieces  of  drinking  para- 
phernalia found  only  in  houses  of  wealthy  Colonials 
who  could  afford  to  have  all  the  small  occasional 
appointments  made  of  precious  metal. 

Tankards  were  made  and  used  from  the  beginning 
of  the  Colonial  period  to  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  display  varying  characteristics,  according 
to  the  date  of  their  manufacture.    The  tankards  of  the 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    147 

seventeenth  century  and  the  fore  part  of  the  eighteenth, 
corresponding  to  the  1st  chronological  division,  show  a 
broad,  flat  base,  straight,  tapering  sides,  a  flat  top  or 
lid,  scroll  purchase  and  S  handle  with  plain  whistle, 
shield-shaped  end  or  tip.  Sometimes  the  handle  was 
reinforced  by  a  rib  down  the  side.  The  base  had  a 
moulding,  and  there  was  a  moulded  lip.  This  early  typo 
was  often  embellished  with  a  line  of  acanthus  leaves  or 
crockets  above  the  base  moulding  and  with  moulded 
ornaments  on  the  back  of  the  handle,  but  such  examples 
were  usually  pieces  of  a  fairly  late  date  in  which  the 
early  contour  had  been  retained  (Key  I,  5). 

A  little  later,  a  mid-band  was  added,  or  occasionally 
several  bands ;  the  covers  assumed  the  form  of  a  swell- 
ing drum  surmounted  by  a  finial ;  the  whistle  tip,  instead 
of  being  plain,  was  frequently  adorned  with  a  decorated 
plate  bearing  a  moulded  cherub's  head  or  some  such 
device,  and  the  back  of  the  handle  oftentimes  became 
a  subject  for  moulded  decoration.  This  form,  also, 
dates  from  the  1st  chronological  division,  as  attested 
by  specimens  made  by  John  Cony  (Key  I,  6)  and 
some  contemporary  smiths.  It  continued  in  fashion 
through  the  '2d  chronological  division  and  well  into  the 
3d,  as  evidenced  by  tlie  tankards  produced  by  Paul 
Revere  (Key  III,  10).  In  the  3d  division  we  also  meet 
with  tankards  of  shaped  bod}^  (Key  III,  12),  a  form  that 
seems  to  have  been  carried  over  into  the  early  part  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  Latterly  we  find  a  smaller 
tankard,  belonging  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  centuiy 
and  the  first  years  of  the  nineteenth,  with  straight, 
barrel-hooped  sides  and  flat  lid  without  finial  ( r.  Hamil- 
ton tankard  in  plato  illustration). 

It  may  be  noted  that  the  type  with  mid-band,  drum 


148        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

top,  and  finial  seems  to  have  enjoyed  special  popularity 
in  New  England,  while  a  form  with  plain  sides  (with- 
out mid-band)  and  top  without  finial  apparently  found 
general  preference  in  New  York,  Connecticut,  Phila- 
delphia, and  the  country  within  their  sphere  of  influence. 

SILVER  FOR  CONTAINING  OR  POURING 

Of  all  the  silver  belonging  to  this  category,  no 
articles  show  a  clearer  and  more  characteristic  chrono- 
logical progression  of  contour  types  than  tea-pots.  1)1 
considering  them  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  they 
show  a  disposition  to  increase  in  size  as  the  eighteenth 
century  advances.  In  the  seventeenth  century  and  dur- 
ing the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  tea  was  an  ex- 
pensive luxury,  and  this  fact  will  account  for  the  small 
dimensions  of  the  earlier  tea-pots. 

Tea-pots  of  the  1st  chronological  division  are  of 
bulbous  or  bell  shape,  with  a  high,  domed  lid  sur- 
mounted by  a  moulded  finial,  making  the  general  con- 
tour somewhat  similar  to  that  of  a  pear  with  the  big 
end  down,  as  in  the  example  by  John  Cony  (Key  I,  3), 
or  else  they  are  globular,  with  a  flat,  rimless  lid,  sur- 
mounted by  a  finial,  as  in  another  example  of  nearly  the 
same  date  (Key  I,  4).  The  bulbous  or  bell-shaped  tea- 
pots with  domed  lid  had  no  foot,  but  stood  flat,  with 
merely  a  narrow  and  inconspicuous  base  mould  to  ter- 
minate the  inward  curve  of  the  sides ;  a  short  S-curved 
spout  and  a  hooped  or  C-shaped  wooden  handle  let  into 
sockets  soldered  to  the  back.  The  globular  tea-pots 
had  a  splayed  moulded  foot,  an  S-shaped  or  curved 
spout,  but  not  turned  so  sharply  upward ;  and  a  curved 
or  C-shaped  wooden  handle,  usually  with  a  thumb-piece 
or  purchase  at  the  top.    A  contemporary  Dutch  type 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    149 

{v.  tea-pot  by  Adrian  Bancker  in  the  plate  illustration), 
made  only  in  New  York  and  the  vicinity,  was  also  bulb- 
ous or  bell-sliaped,  had  a  squat  splayed  foot,  curved 
spout,  and  shaped  wooden  handle.  The  lower  handle 
socket  was  more  ornate,  the  lower  part  of  the  body  was 
flatter  and  turnip-shaped,  the  narrow  neck  was  longer 
and  more  sharply  defined  in  contour  than  in  the  related 
tea-pots  of  English  type,  and  the  high,  domed  lid,  as 
well  as  the  bodv,  was  marked  with  moulded  bands.  In 
the  plate  illustration,  the  three  types  in  the  upper  row 
afford  interesting  grounds  of  comparison  and  also  sug- 
gest certain  points  of  ceramic  relationship. 

In  the  2d  division,  towards  the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  we  find  a  pear-shaped  tea-pot  (the  large 
end  up)  in  fashion  (Key  II,  8  and  Key  V,  9).  The  base 
or  foot  is  splayed  and  moulded ;  the  spout  slightly 
S-curved  and  projecting  well  forward  from  the  body; 
the  small  lid  without  rim,  slightly  drummed  and  sur- 
mounted by  a  pineapple  or  other  finial,  and  a  hooped  or 
C-shaped  wooden  handle. 

In  the  3d  division,  the  epoch  of  Adam  influence  in 
design,  tea-pots  have  oval-shaped  bodies  with  straight 
or  slightly  curved  sides,  flat  bottoms  without  moulding, 
straight  spouts,  C-shaped  wooden  handles  and  lids 
either  flat  or  slightlv  drummed  and  surmounted  bv  a 
pineapple  or  moulded  silver  finial,  or,  sometimes,  an 
ivory,  bone,  or  wooden  finial  (Key  V,  10  and  Key  TIT, 
14).  Such  tea-pots  often  stood  on  oval  trays  with 
feet,  made  especially  for  them.  The  oval  body  contour 
of  these  tea-pots  was  frequently  broken  into  a  succes- 
sion of  small,  concave,  parabolic  curves  (Tvey  TIT,  14, 
and  also  plate  illustration  of  Revere  tea-pot),  and  there 
were  no  mouldings  at  either  base  or  top.    Occasionally 


150       EARLY  A:\IERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

these  oval  tea-pots  had  dished  or  concave  tops,  the  ends 
high  and  the  middle  low  (c/.  top  line  of  sugar  bowl, 
Key  III,  16).  A  variation  from  the  perj)endicular- 
sided,  oval  tea-pots  of  this  period,  retained  the  oval 
shape  but  had  sides  slightly  swelling  outward  toward 
the  middle.  Still  another  variety  of  tea-pot  that  be- 
longed to  this  period  was  urn-shaped,  stood  on  a  ped- 
estal and  had  a  curved  spout. 

In  the  4th  division,  under  Empire  influence,  swelling 
curves  again  became  fashionable.  The  tea-pots  often 
stand  on  four  ball  feet  (Key  V,  11),  and,  while  the  sides 
are  broken  into  curves,  the  general  shape  is  either  round 
or  oblong  (Key  V,  11),  the  spout  is  curved  and  project- 
ing, the  lid  flat  with  a  pineapple  or  moulded  finial,  and 
the  handle  C-shaped  or  scrolled  (Key  V,  11).  The  top 
is  often  dished  or  concave  in  contour  with  the  ends 
higher  than  the  middle  (Key  V,  11). 

Spout  Cups,  with  covers  and  S-curved  spouts,  were 
made  during  the  1st  and  2d  divisions,  and,  in  general 
contour,  resembled  the  bell-shaped  tea-pots,  except  that 
the  spouts  were  at  the  side. 

Sugar  Bowls,  as  vessels  specifically  made  for  hold- 
ing sugar,  do  not  belong  to  our  1st  chronological 
division.  As  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  porringer, 
the  general  utility  vessel  at  that  period,  did  duty  for  a 
sugar  bowl,  a  porringer  has  been  placed  first  in  the 
chronological  sequence  of  sugar  bowls  shown  in  Key  V, 
12, 13, 11-,  15  and  16.  Vessels  such  as  the  engraved  bowl, 
by  an  early  but  unknown  maker,  shown  in  the  plate  illus- 
tration below  the  engraved  Dutch  beaker,  may  also 
have  served  as  sugar  bowls.  At  this  period  there  w^as 
no  effort  made  to  have  complete  tea  sets  of  uniform 
pattern,  such  as  those  that  came  into  use  later  in  the 
eighteenth  century. 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    151 

In  the  2d  division,  bowls  of  varied  pattern,  such  as 
those  shown  in  Key  V,  13  and  14,  were  doubtless  used 
for  sugar  and  may,  upon  occasion,  have  served  for  other 
purposes,  too.  There  were  also  standing,  covered,  pear- 
shaped  bowls,  similar  to  the  contemporary  pear-shaped 
tea-pots,  made  for  sugar  {v.  sugar  bowl  by  George 
Dowig  in  plate  illustration). 

In  the  3d  division,  when  the  elegancies  of  the  late 
eighteenth  century  tea-table  had  become  more  highly 
organised,  sugar  bowls  were  made  of  a  pattern  to  cor- 
respond closely  with  the  tea-pot  and  its  accompanying 
paraphernalia.  Favourite  types  were  in  the  form  of 
urns  with  rising,  shaped  covers  (Key  V,  16),  or  of  oval 
baskets  with  handles  (Key  V,  15).  Dished  or  con- 
cave contours  were  common  (Key  V,  15). 

In  the  4tli  division  the  sugar  bowl  closely  corre- 
sponded with  its  neighbour,  the  tea-pot.  Common 
shapes  were  oblong,  Avith  ear-like  handles  at  each  end 
(Key  IV,  11  and  13),  round,  and  pear-shaped,  rising 
from  a  moulded  pedestal  and  surmounted  with  a  rising 
shaped  cover  with  a  pineapple  or  moulded  knob  (v.  plate 
illustration  of  sugar  bowl  with  gadrooned  base  by 
George  Dowig).  The  oblong  sugar  bowls  with  ear 
handles  stood  on  four  ball  or  knob  feet  (Key  V,  11  and 
13),  and  the  tops,  as  were  also  the  tops  of  many  of  the 
contemporary  tea-pots,  were  dished  or  concaved  in  con- 
tour, with  the  ends  high  and  the  middle  low  (Key  V,  13). 
Gadrooning  (Key  IV,  11)  was  a  favourite  method  of 
ornamentation  for  sugar  bowls,  tea-pots,  and  other 
large  pieces  of  hollow-ware. 

Cream  Pitchers,  as  well-defined  articles  of  specific 
purpose,  make  their  appearance  before  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century.    There  are  ob^^ouslv  numerous 


152        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

points  of  similarity  and  contour  correspondence  be- 
tween the  little,  round-bellied  cream  pitchers  with 
moulded  and  cast  scroll  handles,  three  cabriole  legs  with 
hoof  or  web  feet,  and  shaped  rims  and  spouts,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  contemporary  three-legged  salts,  the 
brasiers,  the  pear-shaped  tea-pots,  and  the  cast  sugar 
scissors,  on  the  other.  These  cream  pitchers  had  usu- 
ally a  plain  body,  but  occasionally  (as  in  the  left-hand 
example  of  the  plate  illustration  of  eight  cream 
pitchers)  engraving  and  chasing  were  added.  These 
three-legged  cream  pitchers  of  the  2d  chronological 
division  (Key  II,  12;  Key  V,  17,  and  Fig.  6,  A)  were 
supplemented  by  a  second,  nearly  contemporary 
variety,  supported  on  a  stem  or  stand  rising  from  a 
broad,  circular  foot  (Key  II,  13,  and  Key  V,  18)  with  a 
cast  scrolled  handle. 

In  cream  pitchers  of  the  3d  division  we  find  more 
restraint  and  less  rotundity  of  contour.  Even  where 
the  shape  of  the  contour  has  not  been  obviously  inspired 
by  classic  models,  refinement  of  line  (Key  V,  19,  and 
the  left-  and  right-hand  specimens  on  the  top  row  of  the 
full-page  plate  of  cream  pitchers)  was  a  dominant  char- 
acteristic. The  general  form,  in  a  horizontal  plane,  was 
oval  or  oval  with  concaved  shapings  (Key  V,  19),  and 
the  contour  line  of  the  top  was  usually  concaved.  In  a 
vertical  plane  we  find  elliptically  curved  lines.  Some 
of  the  cream  pitchers  were  polygonal,  following  a  gen- 
eral oval  outline.  Another  favourite  form,  besides  the 
flat-bottomed  types  just  mentioned,  rose  on  a  pedestal 
from  a  square  base  and  continued  upward  in  the  man- 
ner of  an  urn  (Key  V,  20;  Key  III,  13,  and  Fig.  6,  B). 
The  handles  of  these  cream  pitchers  were  scrolled  (Key 
III,  13),  ear-shaped  (Key  V,  19),  or  straight-topped 
with  descending  curve  (Fig.  6,  B). 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    153 

Cream  pitchers  of  the  4th  division  coincided  with 
the  prevalent  pompous  and  imposing  contours  of  com- 
panion pieces.  They  were  flat  bottomed  (Key  IV,  12) 
and  also  had  base  mouldings  (Key  V,  21).  The  bodies 
displayed  swelling  lines  and  were  sometimes  oblong  or 
elongated  to  correspond  with  the  tea-pots  and  sugar 
bowls.  The  sides  were  either  shaped  with  many  curves 
(Key  V,  21)  or  followed  one  graceful  outward  curving 


Fig.  6.    A,  Three-legged  Cream  Pitcher,  by  Joseph  Richardson,  Philadelphia,  c.  1790; 
B,  Cream  Pitcher,  by  Joseph  Shoemaker,  Philadelphia,  1797-1S17. 

C.  Hartman  Kuhn  Collection.    Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

and  returning  line  (Key  IV,  7).  There  was  also  a  type, 
with  S  scroll  handle  and  contour  approximating,  but 
not  equalling  in  grace,  that  of  the  earlier  three-legged 
pattern  {v.  full-page  plate  of  cream  pitchers,  in  middle 
of  bottom  row). 

Pitchers  of  a  larger  size  but  generally  similar  con- 
tour were  to  be  found,  particularly  in  the  early  nine- 
teenth century,  when  they  often  assumed  an  approx- 
imately barrel  or  jug  shape. 


154       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Ewers,  of  an  urn  shape,  with  short  spout  or  mouth 
and  a  cover  came  into  use  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  They  were  not  numerous,  however. 
They  were  used  for  wine,  water  or  cyder. 

Urns,  as  their  name  denotes,  were  of  urn  shape  and 
became  popular  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  the  Adam  influence  w^as  still  strong  and 
determined  their  design,  as  hot-water  receptacles  for 
the  tea  service.  They  stood  on  square  bases,  with  or 
without  feet ;  had  two  ear-shaped  handles ;  a  rising  lid 
with  finial  atop  and  a  spigot  or  tap  in  front,  at  the  base 
of  the  urn,  the  thumb  piece  being  of  wood  or  ivory. 
The  body  of  the  urn,  of  tall,  slender,  pointed  oval, 
classic  shape — similar  to  that  of  the  tall  covered  sugar 
bowl  (Key  V,  16)  of  the  same  period — might  present 
either  a  continuously  curved  surface  in  circumference, 
or  a  surface  fluted  with  a  succession  of  shallow,  con- 
cave, parabolic  curves,  like  the  surface  of  the  sugar 
bowl  or  basket  (Key  V,  15)  or  the  Revere  tea-pot,  or, 
finally,  the  polygonal  circumference  might  be  broken 
into  a  number  of  vertical  facets. 

In  the  ensuing  period  of  Empire  influence  the  urns, 
though  retaining  their  name  and  use,  and  the  base  and 
pedestal  stock  or  support,  developed  either  a  round  or 
oblong  base  (with  or  without  feet)  and  a  round  body, 
sometimes  of  globular  contour,  sometimes  of  approxi- 
mately pear  form;  a  surface  broken  horizontally  into 
many  swelling  and  returning  moulded  curves,  like  that 
of  the  tea-pot  (Key  IV,  10) ;  otherwise  a  body  of  ob- 
long contour,  similar  to  that  of  the  tea-pot  (Key  V,  11), 
the  transverse  swellings  and  moulded  curves  still  ap- 
pearing. The  tops  corresponded  in  style  to  the  tops 
of    contemporary    tea-pots    and    sugar    bowls.      The 


Bottom  of  Plate  made  by  Cesar  Ghiselin,  showing  Texture  of  Silver  and  Maker's  Mark 

Courtesy  of  the  Rector  and  \'estry  of  Christ  Church,  Philadelphia 

Tray,  Quill  Tloldor,  Ink  Pot  and  Sand  Shaker,  made  by  Philip  Syng,  the  Youncer,  in  1752, 

for  the  Pennsylvania  Assembly.      Used  in  SijininK  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Courtesy  of  the  Curator  of  the  State  House,  Philadelphia 

Pear-shaped  Sugar  Bowl  by  George  Dowig,  17G5;  Saucepan,  by  Joseph  Richardson,  c.  1790; 

Wine  Syphon 
C.  Hartman  Kuhn  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    155 

handles  were  either  of  ear  type  or  scroll  shaped  and 
placed  vertically;  rings  hanging  from  lions'  mouths; 
or  else  of  shaped  contour  and  fixed  horizontally. 

Coffee  Pots  were  not  often  to  be  met  with  till  to- 
wards the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  earliest 
were  of  a  cylindrical  form  tapering  towards  the  top, 
had  a  curved  spout,  shaped  scroll  wooden  handle  let 
into  sockets  (Fig.  11,  H)  soldered  to  the  back,  and  a 
drum  lid  wdth  finial  {v.  plate  illustration  of  coffee  pot 
by  Pygan  Adams).  Coffee  pots  were  always  built  on 
tall,  cylindrical  lines  as  opposed  to  the  low  and  often 
globular  contour  of  tea-pots.  The  later  coffee  pots, 
howevejr,  while  maintaining  and  even  increasing  their 
height  and  relative  circumference,  shared  somewhat  in 
the  characteristics  of  contemporary  tea-pots.  They 
had  shaped  sides,  swelling  out  noticeably,  like  inverted 
pears,  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  body  and  then  sharply 
receding  to  the  stock  or  pedestal  which  rose  from  an 
ornate  moulded  or  gadrooned  and  splayed  base  or  foot. 
Tlie  curved  spouts  and  handle  sockets  were  often  elab- 
orately decorated  and  the  drum  lids — more  swelling 
than  in  the  earlier  type — were  moulded  and  capped  with 
pineapple  or  other  finials  {v.  plate  illustration  of  coffee 
pot  by  Paul  Revere) . 

There  was  still  another  form,  slightly  later  than  the 
preceding,  of  shaped  contour,  swelling  out  in  the  lower 
part.  It  closely  resembled  the  late,  shaped  tankards 
(Key  III,  12)  and  had  neither  stock  nor  receding  curve 
of  the  lower  body  (such  as  that  noted  in  the  type  just 
discussed)  but  rested  directly  upon  a  splayed  moulded 
foot.  Otherwise  it  did  not  differ  widely.  AVhile  coffee 
pots  of  the  two  types  just  described  continued  to  be 
made  through  the  eighteenth  century,  j^et  another  type 


150        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

as  was  to  be  expected,  came  into  fashion  as  well  towards 
the  end  of  that  period.  This  last  mentioned  style  was 
urn  shaped,  in  accord  with  the  strong  Adam  influence, 
stood  upon  a  slender  pedestal  or  stock  and  differed 
from  the  previously  described  urns  of  classic  lines 
only  in  having  a  spout  and  scrolled  wooden  handle  in- 
stead of  two  ear-shaped  handles  of  silver.  During 
the  period  of  Empire  influence,  while  usually  retaining 
their  traditional  height,  coffee  pots  w^ere  made  closely 
resembling,  both  in  general  contour  and  detail,  the  urns 
and  tea-pots  of  contemporary  vogue.  They  commonly 
stood  upon  buxom  stocks.  In  the  early  nineteenth  cen- 
tury also  occurred  melon-shaped  coffee  pots,  standing 
upon  legs,  and  elaborately  decorated. 

Chocolate  Pots  w^ere  cylindrical  in  form,  swelling 
at  the  base  and  tapering  towards  the  top,  wdtli  a  domed 
cover  {v.  plate  illustration).  The  curved  spout  was 
at  the  side  and  both  base  and  cover  w^ere  especially  sub- 
ject to  ornamentation.  This  same  general  contour 
seems  always  to  have  been  preserved,  despite  the  muta- 
tions of  fashion  that  affected  the  shapes  of  other  arti- 
cles, and  is  to  be  seen  also  in  Oriental  porcelain  choco- 
late pots. 

Punch  Ladles  had  bowls  flaring  sidewise  or  bowels 
with  lips  or  spouts  at  the  sides  to  facilitate  pouring; 
the  handles  were  long  and  oftentimes  were  made  of 
wood  capped  at  the  end  with  silver. 

Stkainees  were  fashioned  with  great  elegance  and 
care,  for  punch  brewing  was  an  highly  important  social 
function  requiring  the  best  of  accessory  appointments. 
Eims  and  handles  were  chastely  moulded  and  the 
handles  were  scrolled  (Fig.  7,  B).  Some  strainers  had 
two   long   handles,    projecting   on    each    side,    which 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    157 

stretched  across  the  diameter  of  the  punch  bowl,  resting 
upon  the  opposite  rims ;  others  had  but  one  handle,  in 
which  case  there  was  apt  to  be  a  catch  projecting  down- 
ward (Fig.  7,  A)  to  hold  the  strainer  in  place  at  the 
side  of  the  bowl.  The  perforations  (Fig.  7,  B)  were  in 
decorative,  and  usually  geometrical,  patterns. 

Syphons  and  Funnels  were  made  in  silver  {v.  plate 
illustration)  for  the  convenience  of  householders  in  a 


Fig.  7.  Side  view  of  Strainer  by  Benjamin  Halstead,  Pliiladelphia,  1783,  showing 
catch;  B,  Top  view  of  same  Strainer. 

C.  Hartman  Kuhn  Collection.    Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

day  when  heads  of  families  had  regard  enough  for  their 
port  and  Madeira  to  be  punctilious  about  handling  it 
themselves  and  before  the  appreciation  of  those  pota- 
bles had  been  lessened  by  cocktails,  highballs  and  their 
plebeian  congeners. 

Bowls,  such  as  those  shown  in  Key  II,  11 ;  Key  V, 
13  and  14,  and  in  the  plate  illustrations,  besides  being 
used  for  sugar  or  for  tea  slops,  fulfilled  a  variety  of 
other  uses.  Their  contour  affinities  have  already  been 
noted. 


158        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Tea-Caddies  or  Canisters,  towards  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  were  made  to  accompany  the 
silver  tea  services.  Their  shape  was  derived  from  the 
porcelain  tea-caddies  of  the  period  while  the  details  of 
form  and  decoration  corresponded  with  the  other  arti- 
cles they  were  intended  to  accompany.  They  were  not 
numerous,  as  Oriental  lacquer  boxes  or  wooden  caddies, 
made  in  Hepplewhite  or  Sheraton  designs  to  accord 
with  the  knife  boxes  and  sideboards  of  the  time,  and 
containing  two  or  more  pewter  compartments,  were  in 
far  more  general  use. 

Flagons  were  much  the  same  as  tankards  in  point 
of  contour,  only  taller  and  narrower  in  proportion,  and, 
while  sometimes  probably  employed  domestically  for 
filling  tankards,  were  more  commonly  of  ecclesiastical 
use  and  always  retained  their  early  form.  They  are 
further  discussed  under  Ecclesiastical  Silver. 

Buckles  for  shoes  and  knee  breeches  were  made 
from  an  early  date,  were  both  plain  and  ornate,  and, 
in  general,  corresponded  with  the  dominant  charac- 
teristic details  of  ornament  of  the  period  of  their  manu- 
facture. Line  engraving, ' '  bright  cutting ' '  and  chasing 
were  sometimes  used  for  their  embellishment.  Un- 
fortunately a  very  large  number  of  knee  and  shoe 
buckles  found  their  way  to  the  melting  pot,  when  they 
were  no  longer  in  demand  as  items  of  personal  apparel, 
and  emerged  in  the  form  of  tea  spoons. 

Thimbles,  needlecases,  bodkins  and  other  small 
sewing  accessories  of  silver  were  numerous  during  the 
eighteenth  century. 

Patch  Boxes  and  Snuff  Boxes  during  the  eighteenth 
century  were  made  in  a  variety  of  shapes,  as  fanciful 
conceit  dictated,  and  were  often  objects  of  great  ele- 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    159 

gance  and  elaborate  workmansliip.  Even  relatively 
plain  patch  and  snuff  boxes  were  not  seldom  beautifully 
engraved  or  chased  with  decorative  designs  on  the  top 
and  sometimes  on  the  bottom  as  well  [v.  plate  illustra- 
tion). 

Sword  Hilts,  Whistles  and  other  of  the  less  com- 
mon elegancies  were  determined  more  by  personal 
fancy  than  by  any  prevailing  period  influences. 

Wine  Labels  appeared  late  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury and  both  at  that  time  and  aftersvards  accorded 
with  current  silver  styles.  They  were  both  oblong 
and  shajDed  and  were  concaved  to  lie  close  to  the  rounded 
contour  of  the  decanter.  They  occasionally  display 
"bright  cut"  edge  bands  or  other  decorative  engrav- 
ing or  chasing  as  well  as  the  lettering  to  indicate  the 
contents  of  the  decanter. 

Candlesticks  of  the  first  chronological  division  had 
square  or  round  bases,  a  hobeche-like  projection  low 
down  on  the  stock  for  convenience  in  carrying,  and 
plain  stocks  with  mid-bands  or  else  fluted  stocks,  taper- 
ing toward  the  top.  In  the  second  chronological  di- 
vision, or  from  about  the  second  quarter  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  candlesticks  had  baluster  stems  with 
octagonal,  round  or  shaped  bases  {v.  plate  illustration). 
Branching  candelabra  belong  to  the  latter  part  of  this 
era.  In  the  third  chronological  division,  the  shafts  or 
stems  were  of  a  more  pronouncedly  architectural  pat- 
tern with  square  bases,  the  sides  of  the  stem  frequently 
being  fluted  and  the  socket  moulded  like  a  pillar  capi- 
tal. The  architectural  candlestick  maintained  its  popu- 
larity in  the  early  nineteenth  century. 

Sconces  occur  now  and  again  but  are  not  numerous 
and  are  generally  of  a  plain  pattern  with  S-shaped 
stems. 


160       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Candle  Snuffers  and  Trays,  made  of  a  design  suit- 
able to  accompany  candlesticks,  occur  from  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  onward. 

Jewellery.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  many  of 
the  silversmiths,  as  was  quite  natural,  were  goldsmiths 
as  well.  In  this  capacity  they  fabricated  not  a  little 
jewellery,  including  bracelets,  necklaces,  chains,  set- 
tings for  brooches  and  seals,  rings,  earrings  and  the 
like.  In  this  phase  of  their  business,  they  wrought  in 
both  gold  and  silver  and  displayed  no  less  taste  and 
deftness  of  touch  than  in  the  manufacture  of  church 
plate  and  domestic  tableware.  Attention  has  also  been 
called  to  the  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  silver- 
smiths were  proficient  in  the  art  of  engraving  and  it 
is,  therefore,  not  sur]3rising  to  find  them  cutting  numer- 
ous seals. 

The  subject  of  Colonial  Jewellery  is  too  large  to 
treat  in  the  chapter  on  Silver.  Many  excellent  pieces 
of  Colonial  workmanship  remain  and  a  little  investiga- 
tion would  readily  yield  sufficient  material  for  a  val- 
uable monograph. 

Note:  It  is  manifestly  impossible  that  all  discoverable  forms  of 
early  American  silver  could  be  included  in  the  descriptions  set  forth  in 
tlie  foregoing  sections.  Variations  from  these  representative  types 
must  inevitably  occur  but,  notwithstanding  the  points  of  dilTerence  they 
exhibit,  they  are  plainly  and  unmistakably  derivations  from  the  more 
usual  and  representative  types  and  a  reader  familiar  with  the  general 
type  characteristics,  as  noted  in  this  chapter,  will  find  no  difficulty  in 
classifying  them  according  to  their  stylstic  affinities. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  SILVER 

In  church  silver,  owing  to  the  strong  conservatism 
that  always  prevails  in  matters  ecclesiastical,  there  is 
to  be  found  less  change  of  style  than  in  the  domestic 
silver  of  the  same  periods  and  early  forms  persisted 
with  great  pertinacity. 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    161 

Chalices  may  be  defined  as  standing  cups  or  goblets 
on  baluster  stems  rising  from  a  broad,  round  foot  or 
base.  The  lower  part  of  the  cup,  immediately  above 
the  baluster  stem,  might  be  either  plain  or  gadrooned. 
It  was  usually  plain,  however,  and  the  sides  of  the  cup 
might  be  either  straight  or  flared  slightly  outward, 
while  the  rim  might  or  might  not  be  flared.  In  some  in- 
stances the  bowl  of  the  cup  was  of  great  depth  and  the 
stem  comparatively  short.  Stem  and  base  might  be 
plain  or  elaborately  moulded  and  gadrooned.  Chalices 
were  often  made  with  flanged  covers  to  fit  tightly  over 
the  top  and  these  covers  were  frequently  made  in  the 
form  of  patens  {v.  Patens)  wdth  a  base,  the  paten  being 
inverted  when  used  as  a  chalice  cover. 

Owing  to  the  strong  Puritan  element  in  New  Eng- 
land and  the  general  desire  to  eliminate,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, all  points  of  resemblance  to  the  usages  of  the 
Church  of  England,  it  was  a  common  thing  to  substi- 
tute beakers,  cans,  mugs  or  other  drinking  vessels  in- 
stead of  chalices  for  sacramental  purposes,  and  conse- 
quently chalices,  though  not  unknown,  were  compara- 
tively rare  wherever  the  Puritan  influence  was  para- 
mount. In  Dutch  New  York  and  the  IXitch  parts  of 
Long  Island  and  North  Jersey  we  find  the  same  preva- 
lence of  beakers  and  the  same  scarcity  of  chalices  for 
a  similar  reason.  In  Pennsylvania,  however,  in 
South,  West  and  Eastern  Jersey,  and  in  Delaware  and 
the  Southern  Colonies,  where  the  Church  of  England 
was  far  stronger  numerically,  exactly  the  opposite  con- 
dition obtained  and  chalices  were  the  rule  while  beakers 
were  the  exception.  All  the  same,  beakers  did  occur 
once  in  a  while  and  that,  too,  in  unquestionably  orthodox 
and  consei-vative  parishes,  as,  for  example,  the  Ghiseliu 
11 


162       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

beaker  {v.  plate  illustration)  among  the  collection  of 
plate  at  Christ  Church,  Philadelphia,  or  a  beaker  of 
Dutch  workmanship  at  St.  Mary's,  Burlington.  In  the 
Swedish  parishes  of  Pennsylvania,  West  Jersey  and 
Delaware  the  chalice  was  used. 

Patens  were  discs  or  plates,  either  with  or  without 
rims,  and  were  made  of  a  pattern  to  correspond  with 
the  chalice.  The  two  odinarily  went  together  in  the 
case  of  an  individual's  gift  to  a  church.  The  paten  was 
usually  flat  bottomed,  like  a  plate  {v.  plate  illustration 
of  Ghiselin  plate  or  paten),  but  was  sometimes  raised 
on  a  low  base  or  stock.  Both  chalice  and  paten  were 
commonly  plain  save,  perhaps,  for  an  engraved  in- 
scription or  the  arms  of  the  donor. 

Flagons  were  virtually  of  tankard  shape  but  much 
taller  and  narrower  in  proportion.    The  straight  sides 
of  their  cylindrical  bodies  or  barrels  were  either  per- 
pendicular or  tapered  toward  the  top  and  there  was 
no  moulded  mid-band,   as  in  some  of  the  tankards. 
Whatever  moulded  bands  encircled  the  body  or  barrel 
of  the  flagon  w^ere  near  either  the  top  or  the  bottom. 
When  inscriptions  or  heraldic  engraving  were  used, 
they  were  ordinarily  placed  on  the  body  about  the 
middle  of  the  front.    The  projecting  base  was  moulded 
and  the  lid  or  cover  was  drummed  {v.  plate  illustra- 
tion of  Quarry  flagon  at  Christ  Church,  Philadelphia, 
,  by  Philip  Syng,  the  elder)  and  might  be  either  flat  on 
top  or  finished  with  a  finial  {v.  plate  illustration  of  the 
flagon  of  Brattle  Street  Church,  Boston).    The  lid  or 
cover  was  raised  by  pressing  down  a  purchase  {v.  Fig. 
11  (b),  K)   or  thumb  piece.    The  handles  were  ''S" 
scrolled  and  there  were  no  spouts  at  the  lip  whose 
circumference  was  unbroken  by  any  shape  to  facilitate 
pouring. 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    163 

Towards  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
a  form  of  flagon  with  shaped  sides,  swelling  out  in  a 
bulbous  manner  towards  the  bottom  of  the  body,  and 
a  splayed,  moulded  foot,  was  occasionally  seen  and, 
later  still,  an  urn-shaped  ewer  form  of  flagon  was  intro- 
duced. 

Beakers  and  Cups.  Beakers  have  already  been  de- 
fined {v.  Drinking  Vessels)  as  tall,  tumbler-shaped  ves- 
sels with  sides  tapering  towards  a  flat  bottom  or  a 
moulded  base  (Key  I,  7  and  the  plate  illustrations  of 
the  Dutch  beaker  by  an  unknown  maker  and  the  Ghiselin 
beaker  at  Christ  Church,  Philadelphia).  For  the  sake 
of  nice  distinction,  it  seems  desirable  to  make  the  fol- 
lowing differentiation  between  beakers  and  cups,  as  set 
forth  by  Miss  Paull,  of  the  Boston  Museum : — While  the 
beaker  had  a  flat  bottom  or  else  a  moulded  base,  the  cup 
had  a  rounded  bottom  (which  might  be  either  plain  or 
gadrooned  as  in  Key  I,  9),  rising  from  a  splayed, 
moulded  or  reeded  base.  Both  beakers  and  cups  might 
be  of  any  height  and  diameter  compatible  with  con- 
venience in  handling  and  both  might  or  might  not  have 
handles.  There  was  almost  invariably  a  perceptible 
outward  flare  at  the  rim. 

Alms  Basons  and  Collection  Plates.  The  chief 
points  of  distinction  between  these  two  pieces  seem  to 
be  in  the  greater  expanse  and  depth  of  the  former.  The 
plate  illustration  of  the  Hancock  plate,  with  its  en- 
graved cherub  heads,  is  sufficiently  representative  to 
render  further  minute  description  unnecessary. 

Baptismal  Bowls  and  Basons  were  of  various  sizes 
and  patterns.  The  baptismal  bason  at  Christ  Church, 
Philadelphia,  by  Philip  Syng  the  elder  (v.  plate  illus- 
tration) is  14:%  inches  in  diameter  and  correspondingly 


164        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

deep  and  was  made  to  be  set  in  the  font.  On  the  other 
hand,  some  of  the  old  Dutch  New  York  baptismal  bowls 
are  comparatively  shallow  with  broad  rims,  while  still 
another  type,  sometimes  to  be  met  with  in  New  Eng- 
land, stood  on  a  moulded  pedestal  or  stem  {v.  baptismal 
bowl  of  the  old  church  at  Cohasset,  mentioned  in  chap- 
ter on  Pewter).  There  was  no  prevailing  standard  of 
type,  either  chronological  or  local. 

DECORATIVE  PROCESSES 

The  decorative  processes  that  were  commonly  em- 
ployed for  the  embellishment  of  American  silver  made 
between  the  date  of  colonisation  and  the  end  of  the  first 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  were  Engraving, 
Chasing,  Flat-chasing,  Moulding,  Gtadrooning,  Em- 
bossing, Filleting,  and  Stamping. 

Engraving  was  the  decorative  process  most  fre- 
quently used.  It  gave  more  latitude  of  design  than 
other  processes,  yielded  more  variety  of  application, 
and  was  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  material  as  a  medium 
of  surface  embellishment.  It  was  performed  with  the 
ordinary  graving  tools,  and  the  proficiency  of  the 
early  silversmiths,  displayed  in  this  method  of  orna- 
mentation, found  its  echoing  manifestation  in  their 
achievements  on  copper  and  wood.  One  of  the  essential 
characteristics  of  engraving,  indeed,  it  might  be  called 
.  the  distinguishing  characteristic,  was  the  removal  of  a 
part  of  the  metal  by  the  gouging  of  the  shaving  tool, 
no  matter  how  small  the  quantity  removed  might  be. 

The  three  usual  channels  in  which  the  smith  could 
show  his  skill  in  engraving  were  lettering,  the  execution 
of  armorial  hearings,  and  the  tracing  of  decorative  or 
symbolic  devices.    To  these  must  be  added  the  ''bright- 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL     165 

cut"  engraving  which  was  extensively  practised  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  early  nine- 
teenth for  the  ** dog-toothed"  decorative  bands,  ovals, 
and  other  motifs  so  freely  used  in  the  application  of 
patterns  of  Adam  provenance,  and  consisted  of  a  suc- 
cession of  broad,  shallow  side  cuts  of  the  tool,  much  on 
the  principle  used  in  executing  the  "wriggled  work"  on 
pewter  surfaces,  which  produced  numerous  small  facets 
at  a  slight  angle.  Examples  of  this,  usually  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  direct  line  process,  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  1, 
A;  Key  III,  16;  Key  V,  15,  the  Revere  tea-pot  of  the 
plate  illustration,  and  the  other  pieces  shown  herewith. 
The  difference  in  method  may  readily  be  seen  by  com- 
parison with  such  a  piece  of  work  as  the  small  section  of 
surface  showing  armorial  bearings  in  large  detail,  in 
one  of  the  plate  illustrations. 

Chasing  differed  essentially  from  engraving  in  that 
the  design  was  effected  with  punches,  none  of  the  metal 
being  removed  and  a  slight  burr  being  sometimes  raised 
which  was  afterwards  burnished  off. 

Flat-chasing  had  reference  to  the  depth  or  rather 
shallowness  of  punch  marks  as  distinguished  from  deep 
punched  lines. 

Moulding  consisted  of  casting  in  moulds  such  parts 
as  it  was  not  convenient  or  suitable  to  M^ork  up  with 
hammer  or  fashion  over  shaped  anvils,  such,  for  in- 
stance, as  the  pineapple  finials  on  sugar  bowls  and  tea- 
pots, some  of  the  masque,  fruit,  and  flower  ornaments 
on  tankard  handles,  the  cherub  heads  on  tips  or  plates, 
legs  of  salts,  and  cream  pitchers  (Fig.  6,  A),  the  scroll 
work  of  sugar  scissors  or  tongs  and  their  shell  tips 
{v.  plate  illustration),  porringer  handles  (Fig.  2,  A), 
and  the  like. 


166        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Filleting  consisted  in  the  application  of  bands, 
rims,  and  the  members  of  decorative  mouldings. 

Gadrooning  consisted  in  producing  a  series  of  con- 
vex gadroons  or  nulling  by  working  up  the  sheet  of 
metal  or  piece  of  hollow-ware  over  a  shaping  anvil  or 
over  a  mould  shaped  for  the  purpose  (Key  I,  8  and  9; 
plate  illustration,  base  of  sugar  bowl  by  Dowig) . 

Embossing  or  Repousse  work  is  really  an  amplifica- 
tion of  the  previous  process  and  its  application  to  the 
production  of  more  than  one  motif.  The  design  had  to 
be  worked  up  by  the  agency  of  beak  irons  {v.  supra) 
inside  the  vessel  and  hammering  from  the  outside  over 
the  beak  irons'  horns,  thus  raising  the  design  in  relief. 
One  of  the  most  beautiful  examples  of  decoration  pro- 
duced by  this  process  is  the  beaker  by  Samuel  Drowne 
(1728-1774)  with  an  acanthus  base  which  is  also  chased. 

Stamping,  besides  being  applied  to  spoon  bowls  and 
like  shallow  objects,  was  resorted  to  for  making  decora- 
tive bands  and  repeats,  such  as  the  acanthus  leaves 
about  the  base  of  the  tankard  in  Key  III,  11.  When 
stamped  by  dies  in  a  strip,  these  decorations  were 
soldered  in  place. 

TYPES  OF  DECORATIVE  MOTIFS 

Lettering  was  the  simplest  form  of  engraved  dec- 
oration, and  was  executed  in  all  manners,  from  Roman 
capitals  to  numerous  variations  of  flowing  script.  In 
nearly  all  cases  the  lettering  is  well  spaced  and  the 
letters  themselves  are  well  proportioned  and  graceful 
(Key  I,  2 ;  Fig.  1,  B  and  E,  the  rim  of  the  Christ  Church 
baptismal  bowl  by  Philip  Syng,  the  back  of  the  ' '  Mar- 
garet Tresse,  spinstor"  plate  by  Cesar  Grhiselin,  the  rim 
of  the  Hancock  plate,  and  the  flagon  of  the  Brattle 
Street  Church). 


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BArXISMAL  BOWL  (14>i  INCHES  IN  DIAMETER)  AND  FLAGON,  RY  PHILIP  SYNG, 

THE  ELDER.   1712 

BEAKER   AND   PLATE   BY   CESAR  GHISELIX,   c.  1710 

Courtesy  of  the  Rector  and  Vestry  of  Christ  Church,  Philadelphia 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    167 

When  lettering  was  done  it  was  customarily  en- 
graved on  the  fronts  of  tankards,  mugs,  cups,  and  cans, 
on  the  rims  or  bottoms  of  plates,  the  handles  of  por- 
ringers, and  the  handles  of  spoons  and  forks.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that,  during  the  1st  chronological 
division  and  part  of  the  2d,  while  it  was  customary  to 
turn  the  end  of  the  spoon  up  in  front,  initials  and  crests 
w^ere  modestly  engraved  on  the  back  (Fig.  1,  B  and  C; 
Key  I,  2,  and  Key  II,  3).  After  that  time,  when  the 
ends  were  turned  down,  crests  and  initials  were  gen- 
erally moved  in  front,  and  other  decorations  also  then 
began  to  be  employed  on  the  handle  (Key  III,  1,  3,  5 
and  7;  Fig.  1,  A). 

Heealdic  Ornament,  consisting  of  armorial  bear- 
ings and  crests,  was  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and 
legitimate  forms  of  silver  embellishment.  Wherever 
there  was  a  broad  surface,  the  front  of  a  tankard  or 
urn,  the  side  of  a  tea-pot  or  sugar  bowl,  the  level  ex- 
panse of  a  tray,  or  even  a  small,  fiat  surface  like  the 
head  of  a  spoon  handle  (Fig.  1,  C;  Key  II,  3),  one  is 
likely  to  meet  with  some  heraldic  device — it  may  be 
merely  the  crest,  or  it  may  be  the  full  arms  with  crest, 
torce,  mantlings,  and  all.  The  character  of  the  engrav- 
ing was  almost  universally  excellent,  and  this  form  of 
decoration  was  far  more  dignified  and  seemly  than  some 
of  the  tortured  modern  efforts. 

Strap-work  Avas  peculiarly  characteristic  of  silver 
made  by  smiths  of  Dutch  birth  or  descent,  and  is  almost 
never  found  on  a  piece  of  American  silver  made  outside 
of  the  New  York  sphere  of  influence.  The  beaker  of  the 
plate  illustration  shows  how  this  interlacing  strap- 
work  was  employed  in  conjunction  with  floriated  and 
foliated  scroll-work   (Fig.  8),  and  Fig.  9  shows  how 


168       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

strap-work  decoration  was  further  elaborated  by  the  ad- 
dition of  human  figures,  birds,  fruit,  and  other  objects. 


Fio.  8.     Detail  of  engraved  strap  work  and  foliation  as  applied  by  Dutch  New  York 

silversmiths. 

Courtesy  of  R.  T.  Haines  Halsey,  Esq.     (Catalogue  of  New  York  Exhibition) 


FiQ.  9.     Detail  of  engraved  fruits  and  figures  with  strap  work. 
Courtesy  of  R.  T.  Haines  Halsey,  Esq.     (Catalogue  of  New  York  Exiiibition) 

Foliage,    Sckolls,    both    foliated    and    floriated, 
Cherubs'  Heads,  Garlands  and  Ribbons  and  various 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    169 

other  decorative  motifs,  including  the  Adam  swags  and 
DROPS,  PENDENT  HUSKS,  and  PATERAE  Were  freely  used,  as 
may  be  seen  by  the  illustrations,  for  the  enrichment  of 
surfaces. 

RIARKS  AND  LIARKING 

The  Colonial  silversmiths  were  not  required,  as  in 
England,  to  set  their  mark  upon  a  piece  of  silver  they 
had  fashioned,  in  connexion  with  the  hall-mark  and  date 
letter.  There  was  no  regulation  requiring  official  assay- 
ing and  hall-marking,  and  it  was  not  done.  Neither 
was  a  date  letter  or  mark  stamped.  As  there  was  no 
regulation  about  marking  silver,  some  of  it  is  entirely 
unmarked  and  we  can  only  make  conjectures  as  to 
the  maker. 

Most  of  the  early  smiths,  however,  followed  the 
English  tradition  of  marking  their  wares.  They  gen- 
erally used  their  initials  placed  within  rectangles,  ovals, 
shields,  circles,  and  the  like  (Fig.  10),  and  either  with 
or  without  some  device  such  as  a  fleur-de-lis,  a  crown,  a 
pellet,  or  a  star  in  conjunction  (Fig.  10;  bottom  of 
Cesar  Ghiselin  plate,  in  plate  illustration).  The  name 
of  the  place  of  manufacture  is  not  given.  In  some 
instances,  wdicre  the  surname  was  short,  the  full  sur- 
name was  given. 

Makers  did  not  confine  themselves  to  one  mark,  but 
used  several  indiscriminately  from  time  to  time.  John 
Hull  and  Robert  Sanderson,  Jolm  Potwine,  Jacob  Burt, 
and  various  others  had  a  succession  of  marks,  "while 
the  Reveres,  father  and  son,  had  a  bewildering  array. 

About  the  first  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century  it 
became  common  to  use  the  surname,  with  or  without  an 


170        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

initial,  and  occasionally  the  full  name  appeared.  Plenty 
of  instances  occur,  however,  up  to  about  1770,  where 
only  the  initials  are  used.  The  employment  of  devices 
along  with  the  makers'  initials  gradually  fell  into  dis- 
use towards  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 


CA-rtoucKe 


c 


3 


I.ong 


Ovii 


Rfici^n^le,  Shaped  RecfAncU, Engrailed*  P*cf Angle, 5err*.fcd 


C&rfoucK« 


'i^ea.r^- 


circle 


Crescenf 


Crown 


O      CO 


OviJ 


Did.Tnon4 


Pellet- 


Sh&pcd  5Kiel<l  SKiclJ  S<ju4.re 

O^^-^^^^^IUlb^  SctoUs  or  Ribbons 


Trefoil 


Double  Circ[« 


Fleur-deli'i 


Ste. 


Sun 
Fia.  10.    Makers'  devices  and  enclosures  for  names 

The  various  enclosures  for  makers '  names  or  initials 
and  the  more  usual  devices  employed  in  conjunction 
with  them  are  shown  in  Fig.  10,  which,  along  with  the 
list  of  makers'  names  and  references  to  their  marks, 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL     171 

will   supply  a  method   of  ready  identification  to  be 
applied  by  the  reader.^ 


Fig.  11.  Spoons:  A,  bowl;  B,  moulded  drop  or  rat  tail;  C,  handle.  Tankabd  : 
A,  body  ;  B,  base;  C,  mid-band  ;  T),lip;  E,  cover  ;  F,  finial  ;  G,  rim  ;  H,  handle  ;  I,  tip; 
J,  body  drop;  K,  purchase;  L,,  hin(/e.  Coffee  Pot:  A,  body  ;  B,  base ;  Clip;  D, 
cover;  K,  finial ;   V,rim;   U,  handle  sockets  ;   I,  handle  ;  i,  hinge;   K.,  spout. 


*  This  list  is  not  complete,  and  the  authors  will  be  grateful  for  any 
additional  names  or  marks  that  readers  may  be  able  to  supply;  also 
any  data,  biographical  or  otherwise,  respecting  makers  listed  or  unlisted 
that  they  may  be  able  to  furnish. 


172        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

LIST  OF  MAKERS  AND  THEIR  MARKS  PRIOR  TO  1830. 

Boston  : 

Allen,  John  1671-1760      I  A  (in  inverted  heart) 

Allen'  Thomas  1758  

Andrews,  II.  c.  1830  

Austin,  Nathaniel  1731-1818      Austin  (script,  small,  in  rec- 

tangle) ;  N-A  (in  rectangle) 

Bailey,  Benjamin  c.  1800  

Bailey,  Henry  1808  

Baker  1765  

Baldwin  &  Jones  c.  1815  BALDWIN    &    JONES    (in 

scroll) 
Ball,  John  (Boston  ?)  c.  1770  J.BALL  (in  rectangle) 

D.J  J   >(in  cartouche) 

Ball,  S.  S.  1838  

Ball,  True  M.  1815  

Barnes,  Abraham  1716  

Belknap,  Samuel  1751-1821       

Bentley,  Thomas  c.  1762-c.  1800 

Bingham,  John  1678  

Blowers,  John  1710-1748      BLOWERS    (in   long  oval); 

Blowers     (script,    in    rec- 
tangle) 
Boyer,  Daniel  c.  1725-1779      BOYER  (in  rectangle) 

D  B  (in  rectangle) 
D  B  (in  two  ovals) 

Boyer,  James  c.  1700-1741      

Bridge,  John  1723-c.  1794  BRIDGE 

I-BRIDGE  (in  a  cartouche) 

Brinton,  Gordon  &  Quirk         1780  

Brown,  Ebenezer  1773-1816      

Burnett,  C.  A.  C-A-BURNETT    (in    rec- 

tangle) 

Burrill,  Joseph  1823  

BurriU,  S.  c.  1680-c.  1733  S.B.  (pellets  above,  fleur-de- 

lis     below,     heart-shaped 
shield) 
S:  Burrill  (in  cartouche) 
S.B.  (in  rectangle) 
Burt,  Benjamin  1728-1803      BENJAMIN  (in  cartouche) 

BURT 
BURT  (in  rectangle) 
B-BURT  (in  rectangle) 
Burt,  John  1690(?)-1745JO//7V 

BURT  (in  oval)  (also  in  car- 
touche) 
I.  BURT  (in  cartouche) 
I  B  (crown  above,  pellet  be- 
low, in  shaped  shield) 
Burt,  Samuel  1724-1754     SAMUEL 

BURT  (in  cartouche) 
Burt,  WilMam  1726-1752     W.BURT  (in  rectangle) 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    173 


Butler,  James 

1713-1776 

J.BUTLER  (in  rectangle) 
1  B  (in  rectangle) 

Carpenter,  Charles 

1807 

Cary,  Lewis 

1820 

L-  CARY  (in  engrailed  scroll 
ending  in  rosettes) 

Chasley, 

1764 

Churchill,  Jesse 

1773-1819 

i  V  CHURCHILL  (in  rec- 
tangle) 
CHURCHILL  (in  rectangle) 

Churchill  &  Treadwell 

1815 

Clark,  Samuel 

c.  1681 

Clark,  Thomas  (Boston?) 

-1783 

Cobb,  E. 

c.  1710-c.  1762  E.  Cobb  (in  rectangle) 

Coburn,  John 

1725-1803 

J.  COBURN  (in  rectangle) 

Codner,  John 

1754-1782 

Cole,  John 

1686 

Cony,  John  (Coney) 

1655-1722 

I  C  (in  a  shaped  heart,  fleur- 

de-Us  below) 
I  C  (crowned,    in    a    shaped 

shield,  coney  below) 
I  C  (in  rectangle) 

Conyers,  Joseph 

c.  1708 

Conyers,  Richard 

-1708 

Coolidge,  Joseph,  Jr. 

1770 

Cowell,  William 

1682-1736 

W  Cowell  (in  a  cartouche) 
W  C  (in  a  shaped  shield,  star 

and    two    pellets    above, 

pellet  below) 
W  C  (in  oval) 
W:  Cowell  (script,  in  a  car^ 

touche) 

Cowell,  William,  Jr. 

1713-1761 

Crosby,  Jonathan 

c.  1743- 

Cross, 

1695 

Crouckeshanks,  Alexander 

1768 

Dane,  Thomas 

c.  1724-c.  1796  T:  DANE  (in  long  oval) 

Davis,  Joshua 

1796 

I  DAVIS    (in   serrated  rec- 
tangle) 

Davis,  T.  A. 

1824 

Davis,  William 

1823 

Davis,  A\'iit8on  &  Co. 

c.  1820 

Dawes,  William 

1719-1802 

Demmock,  John 

1798 

Deverell,  John 

c. 1764-1813 

Dixwell,  Basil 

1711-1746 

Di.xwell,  John 

1680-1725 

I  D  (in  oval) 

Doler,  Daniel 

1765 

Donaldson,  John  W. 

1823 

Drowne,  Shem 

1728-1774 

Dummer,  Jeremiah 

1645-1718 

i    D    (in    heart,    fleur-de-lis 
below) 

Dunkerly,  Joseph  ? 

1787 

Dwight,  Timothy 

1654-1691 

T   D    (in   heart,   six   pellets 
below) 

174        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


Eames,  Joshua 
Eayres,  Thomas  Stevens      c 
Edwards,  Andrew 
Edwards,  John  c 


Edwards,  Joseph 


Edwards,  Joseph,  Jr. 
Edwards,  Samuel 

Edwards,  Thomas 


Emery,  Stephen 


Emery,  Thomas  Knox         c. 

Emery  &  Co. 

Epps,  Ellery 

Evans,  Robert  c 

Faris,  Charles  (Boston  ?)     c. 


Farnam,  Henry 

Farnam,  Ilufus  (Farnham)  c. 

Farnam,  R.  &  H. 

Flagg,  Josiah  (Jeweller)        c 
Flagg,  Josiah,  Jr.  (Jeweller) 
Fletcher,  Thomas  c 

Fletcher  &  Gardiner  c 

Foster,  Joseph 

Foster,  Samuel 

Frothingham,  Ebenezer 

Gardner,  Sidney  c 

Gay,  Nathaniel 

Gibbs,  Daniel 

Glidden,  Joseph  ?  c 

Goodwin,  Benjamin 
Gray,  John 
Gray,  Samuel 
Gray,  Samuel 
Green,  Benjamin 


-1722      

.  1760-c.  1803 

1763-1798      

.  1670-1746     I  E  (in  quatrefoil) 

I  E       (crowned,    in    shaped 

shield,  fleur-de-lis  below) 
I  E  (in  lobed  shield);  I  E  (in 
cartouche) 
1707-1777     I  Edwards  (script,  in  rectan- 
gle) 
I  •  E  (in  rectangle)  ? 

1737-1783      

1705-1762     S  •  E    (crowned,    in   shaped 

shield,  fleur-de-lis  below) 
1701-1755     T  Edwards    (script,   in  rec- 
tangle) and 
T  E  (in  rectangle) 
T  E  (crowned,  in  shield)  and 
T  E  (in  rectangle) 
.  1752-1801      S.  Emery  (in  cartouche) 
S  E  (in  rectangle) 
Emery  (in  cartouche) 
1781-1815      T-K -EMERY,    (large,   in 
rectangle) 

1798  

-1808      

.1768-1812     EVANS    (in    engrailed    rec- 
tangle) 
.  1790  C's  Faris   (script,  in  oblong 

oval);  Chas.  Faris  (script, 
in  oblong  oval) 
1773-  H.  FARNAM  (in  rectangle) 

1771-  R.  FARNHAM  (in  rectangle) 

1807  R  &  H  FARNAM   (in  rec- 

tangle) 

1713-1741      

1738  

1810  

1810  

1789  FOSTER   (in  rectangle);   I. 

FOSTER  (in  rectangle) 

1676-1702   

1756-1814   

1810 

1680      

1716      

1697-c.  1780  I  G  (crowned,  fleur-de-Hs  be- 
low in  shield) 
1756  B  :  Goodwin  (in  rectangle) 

1692-1720      

1684-1713     GRAY  (in  rectangle) 
1710  S  :  GRAY  (in  rectangle) 

1712-1748     B  :  GREEN  (in  rectangle) 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    175 

Greene,  Ruf  us  1707-1777     R  •  GREENE  (in  shaped  rec- 

tangle) 
R  •  G  (in  shaped  rectangle) 
R  G  (small  in  rectangle) 


Griffith,  David 
Grignon,  Benjamine 
Guille,  Noah 
Haddock,  Henry 
Hanners,  George 

-1789 
1685 
1701 
1830 
0. 1696-1740 

Hanncrs,  George,  Jr. 
Hansell,  Robert 
Harding,  Newell 
Haugh,  Samuel 

Healy, 

Henchman,  Daniel 

1721-1760 
1823 

1799-1862 

1675-1717 

-1773 

1730-1775 

Hewes,  Abram 
Hiller,  Benjamin 

1823 
1687- 

Hiller,  Joseph 
Hitchborn,  Samuel 
Holyoke,  Edward 
Homes,  William 

1721-1758 
1752-1828 
1817 
1717-1783 

Homes,  William,  Jr. 
How,  David 
Howard,  William 
Howe,  Otis 
Hull,  John 


Hull  &  Sanderson 


1742-1825 
c.  1745- 

-1823 
1788-1825 
1624-1683 


1652-1683 


G  .  HANNERS  (in  rectangle) 
G  H  (crowned,  pellet  below, 
in  shield) 


S  H  (in  rectangle) 


Henchman  (in  rectangle) 
D  H  (in  rectangle) 


B  H  (two  crescents  below,  in 

a  shaped  shield) 
B  H  (in  cartouche) 


W  •  Homes  (in  rectangle) 
HOMES  (in  rectangle) 
HOMES  and  W.  H  (both  in 

rectangles) 
W  H  (in  rectangle) 


I    H    (in   heart,    fleur-de-lis 

below) 
I  H   (in  shaped  shield,  rose 

above) 
I  H]  (in     heart,     fleur-de-lis 

(     below-) 
RSnin  shaped  shield,   rose 

I     above) 
I  Hi  (in  shaped  shield,   rose 

above) 
RSnin    shaped   shield,    sun 

above) 
I  H I  (in   heart,   fleur-de-lis 

I     below) 
RS((in    shaped   shield,    sun 

I     above) 
R  S I  (in    shaped  shield,    sun 

above) 
I  H| (heart-shaped    shield, 
rose  below) 


176        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


Hull  &  Sanderson 


1652-1683      I  H 


Hurd,  Jacob 


Hurd,  Nathaniel 

Hurst,  Henry 
Jesse,  David 

Jones,  John 
Jones,  J.  B. 

Jones  &  Ward 
Kelly,  Grael 
Kneeland,  Joseph 

Leach,  Charles 
Leach,  Nathaniel 
Legare,  Daniel 
Legare,  Francis 
Leverett,  Knight 


Loring,  Henry 
Loring,  Joseph 
Low,  Francis 
Low,  John  J.  &  Co. 
Luscomb,  John  G. 
Manning,  Daniel 
McFarlane,  John 

Mecum,  George 
Millner,  Thomas 
Minott,  Samuel 


Mitchell,  Phineas 
Morse,  David 


1702-1758     I 


(in  square  with  rounded 
I     top,  four  pellets  above) 
R,S|(in  shaped  shield,  rose 

I     above) 
I  H]  (in  square  with  rounded 
I     top,  four  pellets  above) 
RS|(in   shaped   shield,   sun 
J     above) 
HURD  (in  cartouche) 


1729-1777 

c. 1665-1717 
1670-1708 

c.  1810 

1782-1854 

c.  1815 
1823 
1698-1760 

c. 1765-1814 

-1789 

1688-1724 

1636-1711 

1703-1753 


1773-1818 
1776 

1806-1855 
1828 
1823 
1823 
c.  1796 

1830 


Jacob 
Hurd  (in  cartouche) 
Hurd  (in  oval) 
Jacob 

Hurd  (in  oartouche) 
I  Hurd  (in  shaped  oval) 
I  H  (in  rectangle) 
HURD  (small  in  rectangle) 
Hurd  (in  shaped  oval) 
N  •  Hurd  (in  rectangle) 
N.  Hurd  (small  in  cartouche) 
H  H  (in  shield) 
D  I  (circle  above,  pellet  be- 
low, in  a  circle) 


J.  B.  JONES  (in  rectangle) 
PURE  COIN  (in  rectangle) 


:  Kneeland  (script  in  a  car- 
touche) 


K  •  Leverett  (script,  in  a  car- 
touche) 
K  L  (in  shield) 
K  L  (in  rectangle) 


V.  Hull,  Mass. 


•  McF 
eagle 


(in   rectangle)  and 


1690-c.  1745  T  M  (in  shaped  rectangle) 


1732-1803 


1812 


S-M  (in  rectangle);  Minott 
(script,  in  rectangle) ;  Min- 
ott (script,  in  rectangle) 
and  M  (script,  in  square) 


-1798 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    177 


Morse,  Hazen 
Morse,  Moses 
Morse,  Nathaniel 


Revere,  Paul 


1813 
1816 
c.  1685- 


Morse,  Stephen 
Moseley,  David 

1796 
1753- 

Moulton,  Ebenezer 
Neuill,  Richard 
Norcross,  Nehemiah 
Norton,  Benjamin 
Noyes,  John 

1796 

1796 
1810 
1674- 

Oliver,  Andrew 
OUver,  Peter 
Paddy,  Samuel 
Parker,  Daniel 

c. 1722 
1682- 

c. 1659 
1727- 

Parkman,  John 
Perkins,  Isaac 
Philhps,  Samuel 
Pierce,  John 
Pollard,  WiUiam 
Pons,  Thomas 

1716- 
c.  1707- 

1658- 
c.  1810 
c.  1690 

1757- 

Poor,  Nathaniel  C. 
Potwine,  John 

1808 
1698 

Prince,  Job 

1680- 

Putnam  &  Son 

1822 

Revere,  Edward 

1767- 

Revere,  J.  W. 

1798 

Revere,  Paul,  Sr 

1702 

M.  MORSE  (in  rectangle) 
■1748  N  M  (crowned,  bird?  below, 
in  a  shaped  shield);  N  M 
(in  rectangle);  N  M 
(crowned,  flower  below; 
shaped  shield);  N  M  (in 
rectangle) 

V.  Newbury,  Mass. 
1812     D    Moseley    (script,    in   rec- 
tangle); DM  (in rectangle) 

■1074      .' .' .' .  .' .' .'  '. 

N  N  (in  a  cartouche) 

-1749  I  N  (cross  below,  in  shaped 
shield);  I  N  (fleur-de-lis 
below,  in  a  shield) ;  I  N  (in 
an  oval) 

1712     PO  (in  a  heart) 

1786     D  •  PARKER  (in  rectangle) ; 

D  •  P  (in  a  rectangle) ;  D :  P 

(in  oval) 

1748      

-1737      

-c.  1722 

W.  P  (in  an  oval) 

■c.  1817  PONS  (large,  in  an  engrailed 
rectangle);  PONS  (in  rec- 
tangle) 

-1895      

-1792  I  :  Potwine  (script,  in  car- 
touche); I — P  (in  oval); 
I  P  (crowned,  in  shaped 
shield);  PO  (in  heart- 
shaped  shield) 

-1708   


-1845 
-1754 


1735-1818 


P.  REVERE    (in  rectangle); 

P  •  Revere  (italic  script,  in 
rectangle) ;  P  R  (in  crowned 
shield);  P  R  (crowned,  in 
shaped  shield);  P.  RE- 
VERE (in  rectangle).  P. 
REVERE  (in  shaped  oval) 

•  REVERE  (in  rectangle) ; 
•  REVERE  and  P.  R. 
(script,  in  rectangles); 
REVERE  (in  a  rectangle); 


178        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


Revere,  Paul 


Revere,  Paul 
Revere,  Thomas 
Revere  &  Son 
Ridgway,  James 
Ridgw'ay,  John 
Roberts,  Frederick 
Rouse,  Michael 

Rouse,  William 


Royalston,  John 
Sanderson,  Robert 


Sargeant  &  Ensign 
Savage,  Thomas 
Sawin,  Silas 
Shreve,  Benjamin 
Simpkins,  Thomas  Barton 
Simpkins,  William 


Smith,  Joseph 
Somerby,  Robert 
Stacy,  P. 

Stanwood,  Henry  B. 
Stodder  &  Frobisher 
Sutherland,  George 
Swan,  Caleb 
Symmes,  John 
Thomson,  Peter 
Trott,  George 
Trott,  Jonathan 

Turner,  James 
Tyler,  Andrew 


1735-1818         P.  R  (script,  in  rectangle) ; 

P  R   (in  rectangle);  P  R 

(incised) 

1760-1813      

1765-1817      T  R  (in  rectangle) 

i7a6  

-1789      

1807  

1770  

1687-  M  R  (in  rectangle) ;  M  R  (in 

a  shield) 
1639-1704  W.  R.  (star  and  two  pellets 
above,  pellet  below,  in  a 
shaped  shield) ;  W  R  (fleur- 
de-lis  above  and  below,  in 
a  circle) 
1770  I  R  (crowned,  shaped  shield) 

c.  1610-1693  R  S  (rose  above,  in  a  shaped 
shield) ;  R  S  (sun  above,  in 
shaped  shield) 

1823  

1664-1749     T  S  (star  below,  in  a  heart) 

1823      

1813-1896   

1728-1804   

1704-1780  W.  SIMPKINS  (in  car- 
touche); W.  SIMPKINS 
and  Simpkins  (script,  in 
rectangle) ;  W.  Simpkins 
(script,  in  rectangle);  W 
Simpkins  (script,  in  rec- 
tangle) and  W  S  (in  rec- 
tangle) ;  W  S  (in  rectangle) 

1789  I.  SMITH  (in  a  rectangle) 

1794-1821      

1819  

1818-1869      

1817  

1810  

1754-1816      

1766  

1817  

c.  1765  

1730-1815  J.  TROTT  (in  cartouche,  or 
shaped  oval) 

1744  I  T  (in  shaped  shield) 

1692-1741  A  T  (fleur-de-lis  below,  in  a 
heart);  A  T  (fleur-de-lis, 
below  in  a  heart),  A  T 
(crowned,  cat  ?  below,  in 
a  shaped  shield);  A  T 
(crowned,  cat  below,  in  a 
shaped  shield) ;  A.  TYLER 
(in  rectangle) 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    179 


Tyler,  David 
Tyler,  George 
Vinton,  David 
Ward,  Richard 
Waters,  Samuel 
Watson,  Edward 
Webb,  Barnabas 
Welch,  John 
Welles,  George 
Welles  &  Co. 
West,  B, 
West,  Charles 
Whiton,  Ebed 
W^illis,  Stillman 
Winslow,  Edward 


New  York  City: 

Alstyne,  Jeronimus 
Anderson,  ^\'illiam 
Archie,  John 
Backus,  Delurine 
Bancker,  Adrian 

Bay  ley,  Simeon  A. 
Baj'ley  &  Douglas 
Benjamin,  Barzillai 
Bennett,  James 
Besley,  Thauvet 
Boelen,  Hendrik 

Boelen,  Jacob 


Bogardus,  Everardus 
Bogert,  Albert 
Bolton,  James 
Bourdet,  Stephen 
Bowne,  Samuel 
Boyce,  G. 
Brasher,  Ephraim 
Brevoort,  John 
Brinckley,  William 
Broadhurst,  Samuel 
Bruff,  Charles  Oliver 
Burger,  John 


Byrne,  James 
Cady,  Samuel 
Cady  &  Backus 


c.  1760-1804     D  T  (in  a  rectangle) 
1740-  G  .  T  (in  a  rectangle) 

c.  isis"         v....... 

1804  S.  WATERS  (in  rectangle) 

1821  

c. 1729  

1730-1812      

1784-1827      

c.  1800  

1770  

c.  1830  

1826  

1823 

1669-1753  E  W  (fleur-de-lis  below,  in  a 
shaped  shield);  E  W  (in  a 
double  circle) ;  E  W  (in  rec- 
tangle) 


1787  

1746  W  A  (in  rectangle) 

1759  I A  [John  Archie?]  (in  oval) 

1796  

1703-c.  1761A  B  (in  oval);  A  B  (pellet 

below,  in  a  heart) 
1790  Bayley  (in  shaped  rectangle) 

1798  

1774-1844      

1769  

1727  T  B  (monogram,  crown  above) 

-1755      HB    (monogram,    in   shaped 

shield) 
-1705      I  B  (rose  below,  in  shield); 

I  B  (with  crown  above,  in 

cartouche) ;  I  B  (in  shaped 

shield) 


1698 
1816 
1790 
1730 
1805 
1829 
1786 
1742 
1804 
1725 
1763 
1786 


1790 
1796 
1796 


S  .  BOWNE  (in  rectangle) 
E  B  (in  oval) 


Burger  (script,  in  rectangle), 
N.  York  (script  in  rec- 
tangle) 


180       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


Cant,  Godfrey 

1796 

Caralin,  Pierce 

1804 

Caston,  Francois 

1804 

1 

Chat,  Le  Sieur 

1790 

Chene,  Daniel 

1786 

Chitry,  P. 

1816 

P.  Chitry  (in  long  oval) 

Clapp  &  Ricker 

1805 

Coen,  Daniel 

1787 

Coley,  Simeon 

1767 

Coley,  Wm. 

1816 

Cooke,  John 

1804 

Cornehson,  Cornelius 

1712 

Crawford,  John 

1815 

Dally  &  Halsey 

1787 

Dawson,  John 

1767 

Denise,  John  &  Tunis 

1798 

J  &  T.  D  (in  rectangle),  phoe- 
nix's head  (in  rectangle), 
sheaf  of  wheat  (in  rec- 
tangle) 

DePeyster,  Wm. 

1733 

De  Remier,  Peter 

1769 

Dobbs 

1788 

DuBois,  Joseph 

1790 

3.  DUBOIS  (in  rectangle) 

Duche,  Rene  Rock 

1804 

Dunn,  Cary 

1765 

CDUisfN  (in  rectangle) 

Edmechat,  Claude 

1790 

Edwards,  Thomas 

1731 

EUeson,  Peter 

1796 

Eoff,  Garrett 

c.  1785- 

1850 

G.EOFF  (in  rectangle);  G. 
Eoff  (in  rectangle) 

Etting,  Benjamin 

1769 

Evans,  John 

1816 

Feurt,  Peter 

— 

1737 

Fielding,  George 

1731 

Forbes,  Abraham  G. 

1769 

, 

Forbes,  Colin  V.  G. 

1816 

Forbes,  G. 

1816 

Forbes,  I.  W. 

1805-] 

1820 

i.'  W.'  FORBES  (in  rectangle, 

Forbes,  W.  G, 


sheaf  of  wheat  below) ;  I  W 
FORBES     (in     rectangle, 
sheaf    of    wheat);    I.    W. 
FORBES  (in  rectangle) 
1773  W  G  FORBES  (in  rectangle) ; 

W FORBES  (in  rectangle); 
W  G  FORBES  (in  rec- 
tangle ;  eagle's  head  in  oval, 
sheaf  of  wheat  in  rectangle) ; 
W  G  Forbes  (in  oblong), 
eagle's  head  (in  oval), 
sheaf  of  wheat  (in  rec- 
tangle); W  G  FORBES 
(script,  in  rectangle), eagle's 
head    (in    oval). 


SIL\^R;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    181 


Fournequet,  Lewis 

1796 

Francis,  N. 

1805 

n"  FRANCIS  (in  oblong, 
eagle  (in  square  with  ser- 
rated top) 

Fueter,  Daniel  Christian 

1754 

Fueter,  David 

1789 

Fueter,  Lewis 

1770 

Gale,  John 

1816 

V.  Heyer 

Gale,  Wm. 

1821 

Gardiner,  B. 

1829 

Gilbert,  Wm. 

1783 

Goelet,  Philip 

1701- 

1747(?)PG'(inoval) 

Gordon,  Andrew 

1796 

Gordon,  A.  &  J. 

1798 

Gordon,  James 

1796 

Grigg,  William 

1765 

Grigg  (script,  in  shaped  rec- 
tangle) 

Hall,  Drew 

1789 

Halsey,  Benjamin 

1764 

Halsey,  Jabez 

1762- 

1820     i  '•  HALSEY  (in  rectangle) 

Halsted,  Benjamin 

1764 

V.  Philadelphia 

Hamersley,  Thos. 

1756 

T  H  (in  rectangle) 

Hastier,  John 

1726 

I  H  (in  heart);  J-H  (in  rec- 
tangle) 

Hastier,  Margueritte 

1771 

Hays,  Andrew 

1769 

Heath,  John 

1761 

Hendrickse,  Ahasuerus 

1698 

A  -  I  (in  oval) 

Heron,  Isaac 

1768 

Heurtin,  Wm. 

1731  (d.  1771  )W.  H  (in  oval) 

Heyer,  W.  B. 

1798 

W.  B.  HEYER  (in  rectangle), 
H  &  N  (in  rectangle);  W. 
B.  HEYER  (in  rectangle), 
J.  GALE  (in  rectangle) 

Hinsdale,  Epaphras 

1796 

Hutton,  John 

1720 

I  H  (in  rectangle) 

Hutton,  John  S. 

1684- 

1792  V.  Philadelphia 

Jackson,  John 

1731 

Johnson,  Samuel 

1783 

Judah 

1774 

Kendal,  Charles 

1787 

Kierstead,  Cornelius 

c. 1675- 

c.  1753  C  K  (in  rectangle);  C  K  (a 
diamond  and  two  pellets 
below,  in  a  shield) 

Kingston,  John 

1775 

Kip,  Benjamin 

1702 

Leddel,  Joseph 

1752 

Lent,  John 

1787 

LeRoux,  Bartholomew 

1739 

LeRoux,  Charles 

1725 

C'  L 

LeRoux,  John 

1723 

I.  L.  (in  oblong) ;  I  L  (in  oval) 

Lintot 

1762 

Luzerder,  Benj. 

1796 

Lyell,  David 

1699 

182        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


Lyng,  John  Burt 

Malrid  &  Co. 
Martin,  P. 
Maverick,  Peter  R. 
McClymon,  J.  C. 
Mecom,  John 
Merick,  J.  B. 
Merkler,  John  H. 
Morris,  John 
Morris,  Sylvester 
Mott,  John  &  Wm. 
Moulinar,  John 
Myers,  Myer 

Newkirke,  Joseph 

Onclebagh,  Garrett 
Overin,  Rich. 
Parisien,  Otto 
Parisien,  O  &  Son 
Pattit,  Thomas 
Pearce,  Samuel 
Pearson,  John 
Pelletreau,  Elias 
Petit,  Thomas 
Pinto,  Joseph 
Pontran,  Abraham 
Quintard,  Peter 

Reeves,  Stephen 
Richard,  S. 
Richardson,  Thos. 
Ridout,  Geo. 
Riker,  P. 

Riker  &  Alexander 
Ritter,  Michael 
Robbs 

Robert,  Christopher 
Roberts,  Michael 
Romney,  John 
Roosevelt,  Nicholas 
Roshore,  Jfohn 
Russel,  John  H. 
Sayre,  Joel 


Schaats,  Bartholomew 


1761  LYNG    (in    rectangle),    N, 
YORK  (in  rectangle) 

1787  

1756  

1755-1811      

1805  

-1770      

J.  B.  Merick  (in  rectangle) 

1788  

1796  

1759  •           

1789  

1744  I  M  (in  rectangle) 

1746  Myers  (script  in  shaped  rec 

tangle) 

1716  I.  N  (in  oval) 

1698  GBo  (in  trefoil) 

1702  

1769  

1789  

1796  

1783  

1796  

1750 
1796 
1758 
1727 
1731 


E  P  (in  rectangle) 

A  P  (in  heart)? 

P  q  (in  square) ;  P  Q  (in 
square) 

1776    V.  BurHngton,  N.  J. 
1828      

1769      

1745  G  R  (in  square) 

1801      

1798      

1786      

1788      

1731      

1786      

1770      

1735      N  R  V  (in  rectangle) 

1796      

1796      

1778-1818  I  SAYRE  (in  rectangle);  I. 
Sayre  (script,  in  shaped 
rectangle) 

1670-1758  B  S  (in  square);  B.S.  (in 
heart,  with  fleur-de-lis  be- 
low) 


Schenck,  John 

1796               

Sexnine,  Simon 

1722               

Skinner,  Abraham 

1756               

Slidel,  Joshua 

1765              

SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL     183 


Smith,  James 

1797 

Smith,  Wm. 

1770 

Soiimaine,  Simeon 

1719 

Staples,  John  J.  Jr. 

1788 

Stephens,  Geo. 

1790 

Stone  &  Osbnrn 

1796 

Stoutenburgh,  Tobias 

1731 

Targee,  John  &  Peter 

1798 

TenEyck,  Koenraet 

1716 

Thomas,  Walter 

1769 

Thomson,  W. 

1830 

Tingley,  Sam'l. 

1767 

Underbill,  Andrew 

1788 

Underhill,  Thomas 

1787 

Underbill  &  Vernon 

1786 

Van  Beuren,  P. 

1790 

Van  Beuren,  Wm. 

1797 

Van  der  Spiegel,  Jacobus 

1685 

Van  der  Spiegel,  Johannes 

1666-1716 

Van  Dyck,  Peter 

1684-1750 

Van  Dyck,  Rich. 

1750 

Van  Voorhis,  Daniel 

1787 

Van  Voorhis  &  Cooly 

1786 

Van  Voorhis  &  Son 

1798 

Vergereau,  Peter 

1721 

Vernon,  John 

1789 

Vernon,  J.  &  Co. 

1796 

Wenman,  Barnard 

1786 

Whitlock,  Thos. 

1796 

Wilson,  R. 

1805 

Windovcr,  John 

c.  1672-1727 

Wishart,  Hugh 

1789 

Woods,  Freeman  1790 

Wool,  Jeremiah  Ward  1791 

Wynkoop,  Cornelius  1701 

Wynkoop  (Wyncoope),  Benj.  1675- 


S  S  (in  square) ;  S  S  (in  circle) 


I  &  PT  (in  rectangle),  eagle's 
head  (in  oval);  I  &  PT  (in 
rectangle)  leopard's  head. 

K  TE  (in  rectangle) 


A    UNDERHILL    (in    rec- 
tangle), A  U  (in  oval) 


I  V  S  (in  trefoil);  lo'^V  (in 

trefoil) 
I  V  S  (in  serrated  rectangle) 
P-V-D    (in   oval);   PVD    (in 

oval)  P.  V.  D.  (in  rectangle 

P^D  (in  trefoil) 

R  V  D  (in  rectangle) 

D.  V.  V.  (in  rectangle),  eagle 
(in  diamond);  D  V  (in 
rectangle),  eagle  (in  dia- 
mond); D.  V.  V.  (in  oval) 


J.  W  (in  cartouche) 

H.  WISHART  (in  rectangle), 
spread  eagle  (in  oval);  H. 
WISHART  (in  rectangle); 
H.  WISHART  (in  rec- 
tangle), eagle  (in  oval), 
imitation  English  Hall 
Marks;  WISHART  (in  rec- 
tangle) 

Woods  (script,  in  shaped  oval) 


1740(?) 

1741(?)  WgK  (in  a  heart);  B  W  (in 

long  oval) 


184        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


Philadelphia: 

Aitken,  John  1796               

Alexander,  Saml.  1797               

Alexander,  S.  &  Simmons,  A.    1800  

Alford,  Samuel  1759                

Alford,  Thos.  1762               

Allen,  James  1720               

Allen,  Robert  1796               

Andrews  (?),  Jr.  174G                

Andrews,  Henry  1796               

Anthony,  Joseph  1762-1814  J.  Anthony  (script,  in  rec- 
tangle) 

Anthony,  Joseph  &  Son  1811                

Armstrong,  John  1811                

Ashmead,  Wm.  1797                

Atherton,  Nathan,  Jr.  1824               

Baily,  John  1762                

Ball,  Wm.  1752               

Bartram,  Wm.  1769                

Berard,  Andrew  1797                

Best,  Joseph  1723                

Black,  John  1819                

Blondell,  Anthony  1797                

Boudinot,  Elias  1747                

Bright,  Anthony  1740                

Brown,  John  1796               

Bruff,  Joseph  1767               

Bumm  &  Shepper  1819               

Burdock,  Nicholas  1797                

Camoin  1797               

Campbell,  Wm.  1765               

Cario,  Michael  1736                

Cario,  W.  c.  1740  W.  CARIO  (in  shaped  rec- 
tangle) 

Carnan,  John  1771                

Cooke,  Joseph  1789                

Gumming,  David  B.  1811                

Curry  &  Preston  1830               

David,  John  1736-1798     J    D    (in    oval,    small);    I- 

DAVID  (in  oblong);  I- 
DAVID  (in  rectangle) 

David,  Peter  1738               

Davy,  Adam  1796                

Dickerson,  John  1797                

Dorsey,  Joshua  1797                

Dowig,  George  1765                

Drewry,  George  1763                

DuBois,  A.  1797               

DuMorte,  John  1796               

Dumoutet,  I.  B.  1797                

Dunlevey,  Robt.  1787                

Dupuy,  Daniel  1719-1807     D  D  (in  rectangle) 

Dupuy,  Dan'l,  Jr.  1796                

England,  Wm.  1718                

Fletcher,  Thomas  c.  1830               


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL     185 


Fletcher  &  Gardiner 
Fling,  George 
Ford,  Samuel 
Fraser,  Wm. 
Garret,  P. 
Gee,  Joseph 
Georgeon,  Bernard 
Germon,  G.  D. 
Germon,  John 
GhiseUn,  Cesar 

Ghiselin,  Wm. 
Gilley,  Peter 
Grant,  Wm. 
Guirna,  Anthony 
Hackle,  Wm. 
Hall,  David 
Halsted,  Benj. 

HoUingshead,  Wm. 
Houlton,  John 
Howell,  James 
Howell,  G.  W.  (Phila.?) 

Humphrey,  Rich. 

Humphrey,  Thos. 
Hunt,  Edward 
Hurlbeart,  Philip 
Husband,  John 
Button,  John  S. 
Jenkins,  John 
Kucher,  Jacob 
Lamar,  Matthias 
Leacock,  John 

Letelier,  John 
Lewis  &  Smith 

Lewis,  Harvey 
Lownes,  Edward 
Lownes,  Joseph 
Lownes,  J.  &  J.  H. 
Lyng,  John 
Marshall,  Joseph 
McFee,  John 
McMullin,  John 


McMuUin  &  Black 
Miles,  John 
Milne,  Edward 
Musgrave,  James 
Myers,  John 
Olivier,  Peter 


1819  

1749  

1797  

1738  

1811  

1788  

1797  

1819  

1788  

c.  1670-1733  C  G  (in  square,  with  star); 
CG  (in  heart-shaped  shield) 

1751  

1797  

1796  

1796  

1766  W  H  (in  rectangle)? 

1765  

1783  Halsted    (script,  in  shaped 

rectangle) 

1762  

1797  

1811  

c.  1790  G  W  Howell  (script,  in  rec- 
tangle) 

1771  R.  Humphrey  (script,  in 
rectangle) 

1814  

1718  

-1764  

1796  

1684-1792  

1796  

1811  I  KUCHER  (in  rectangle) 

1796  

1751  I.  LEACOCK  (in  rectangle), 
I  •  L  (in  rectangle) 

1770  

1811  Lewis  &  Smith  (script,  in 
irregular  oval) 

1819  

1819  

1796  J.  LOWNES  (in  rectangle) 
1819  

1734  

1819  

1797  

1796  I.  McMuUin  (in  rectangle), 
I.  M.,  on  each  side  of  it; 
I.  McMuUin  (in  rectangle) 

1811  

1796  

1761  

1797  ?  (in  rectangle) 

1796  

1797  


186        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


Pepper,  H.  J. 

c.  1795 

H.  I.  PEPPER  (in  rectangle) 

Perkins,  Jacob 

1766- 

Perraux,  Peter 

1797 

Pinchin,  Wm. 

1784 

Pitts,  Rich. 

1741 

Pitts  (script,  in  long  oblong) 

Poincignon,  Francis 

1796 

Poissonnier,  F. 

1797 

Polgrain,  Quom 

1797 

Poupard,  James 

1772 

Price,  Benj. 

1767 

Rasch,  Anthony 

1815 

ANTY"  RASCH  (in  rec- 
tangle) 

Rasch  &  Willig 

1819 

Reeder,  Abner 

1797 

Rich,  Joseph 

1790 

Richards,  Samuel 

1796 

S.'  RICHARDS  (in  rectangle) 

Richards,  T  (Phila.?) 

c.  1790 

T.  RICHARDS  (rectangle) 

Richards  &  WiUiamson 

1797 

Richardson,  Francis 

1718 

Richardson,  Joseph 

1730 

Richardson,  Joseph 

1796 

J.RiCHARDSON  (rectangle) 

Riggs, 

1819 

Robinson  &  Harwood 

1819 

Sacheverell,  John 

1732 

Saint  Martin,  Anthony- 

1796 

Seal,  Wm. 

1819 

Shepper,  John  D. 

1819 

Shields,  Thos. 

1765 

Shoemaker,  Joseph 

1796 

Simmonds,  Andrew 

1796 

Simmons,  Anthony 

1796 

Skerret,  Joseph 

1797 

Soumaine,  Saml. 

1765 

Syng,  Phil. 

1676-1739 

P  S  (in  square) 

Syng,  Phil. 

1703-1789 

P  S  (in  shield),  with  leaf 

Taylor,  Wm. 

1772 

Thibarult  &  Co. 

1797 

Tingley,  Saml. 

1767 

Turner,  James 

1759 

I  T  (in  shaped  shield) 

Tuthill,  Christopher 

1730 

Vanderhaul 

1740 

VanVoorhis,  Daniel 

1782 

b.  V.  V.  (in  rectangle),  eagle 
(in  diamond) ;  D  V  (in  rec- 
tangle), eagle  (in  diamond) 

Vilant,  Wm. 

1725 

W  V  (in  heart-shaped  shield) 
with  fleur-de-hs  below 

Walker,  Geo. 

1796 

Walker,  Wm. 

1796 

Ward,  John 

1811 

WARb,'67  Market  St. 

Ward  &  Cox 

1811 

Warner,  Joseph 

1811 

Warner,  Samuel 

1797 

Westphal,  C. 

1800 

C.  WESTPHAL      (irregular 

Whartenby,  Thom. 


1811 


rectangle) 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL     187 


Williams,  Samuel  1796 

Williamson,  Samuel  1796 

Willig,  Geo.  1819 

Wilson,  Robt.  1819 

Wiltberger,  Christian  1793 

Wyatt,  Jos.  1797 

Yettons,  Randal  1739 

Young,  Wm.  1761 

Massachusetts  (outside  of  Boston) : 
Andrew,  John  1747- 

Austin,  Ebenezer  1733- 

Austin,  James  1750- 

Austin,  Josiah  1719-1780 

Bailey,  Loring  1740-1814 

Baldwin,  Jabez  c.  1810 

Barrett,  S.  c.  1760 

Bartlett,  Samuel  c.  1750-1821 


C.     Wiltberger 
rectangle) 


(in     shaped 


1791      Salem.    I-ANDREW  (in  rec- 
tangle) 
•1788(?)Charlestown 


Beal,  Caleb 

1746-1801 

Boutelle,  James 

1783 

Boylston,  E. 

1789 

Bradbury,  Theophilus 

c.  1815 

Bradbury  &  Bro. 

c.  1810 

Brigden,  Z.  (Chariest own) 

1734-1787 

Cleveland,  William 

c. 1790 

Coverly,  Thomas 

c. 1730-1800 

Davenport,  Samuel 

1720-1793 

Davis,  E. 

1775 

Davis,  Samuel 

1801 

Delano,  Jabez 

1 763-1 S4S 

Dexter,  John 

1735-1800 

Easton,  James 

1828 

Edwards,  Abraham 

1763 

Edwards,  Calvin 

1763 

Edwards,  Samuel 

1726-1783 

Farley,  Charles 

1791-1877 

Geffroy,  N. 

c. 1750 

Gill,  Caleb 

c.  1790 

Charlesto^v^l.  J.  AUSTIN; 
LA;  I- A  (in  oval) 

(Hull 

\Hingham 

Salem.   BALDWIN  (incised) 

Nantucket 

Concord.  S.  BARTLETT 
(in  rectangle);  S.  BART- 
LETT (in  rectangle),  S.  B. 
(script,  in  rectangle) ;  S.  B. 
(script,  in  rectangle) 

Hingham 

Worcester 

Stockbridge 

Newburyport 

Newburyport 

Z-Brigden  (in  a  cartouche) 

Z-B  (in  a  rectangle) 

Salem 

Newburyport.  T.    COV- 

ERLY (in  rectangle) 

Milton 

Newburyport.  E  DAVIS  (in 
rectangle), rampant  lion  (in 
cartouche);  E  D  (in  rec- 
tangle) lion  passant;  E  D 
(in  rectangle) 

PljTnouth 

New  Bedford 

Dedham 

Marlboro 

Ashby 

Ashby 

Natick 

Ipswich 

Mass  (?);  N.  GEFFROY  (in 
engrailed  rectangle);  GEF- 
FROY (in  serrated  rec- 
tangle) 

Hingham 


188        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


Gill,  Leavitt 
Goodhue,  John 

Gowen,  William 


Grant,  Thomas 

Grant,  William 
Greenleaf,  David 
Hadwen,  William 
Hancock,  John 

Harding,  Newell 
Howard,  Abram 
Hurd,  Benjamin 

Lamson,  J. 


c. 1790 
c.  1760? 

1749-c.  1803 


Hingham 

Salem.     J.  GOODHUE 

rectangle) 
rCharlestown 
\Medford 


(in 


1731-1804 


1766- 
1737- 
1820 
1732- 

1799- 

1810 

1739- 

c.  1790 


1809 
1800 


1862 
1781 


Lincoln,  Elijah 

1818-1833 

Little,  William 
Loring,  Joseph 

1775 
1743-1815 

Low,  John  J, 
Lynde,  Thomas 

c. 1800-1876 
1748-1812 

Mansfield,  John 
Morse,  Stephen 
Moulton,  Abel 
Moulton,  Joseph,  1 

1674 
1743- 
1815 
1680-1756 

Moulton,  Joseph,  2  c.  1740-1818 

Moulton,  Joseph,  3  1814-1903 

Moulton,  WiUiam,  1  1710 


Moulton,  William,  2  1720-1793 

Moulton,  Wilham,  3  1772-1861 

Munroe,  John  1824 

Newhall,  Dudley  c.  1730 

Nickerson,  Baty  c.  1825 

Northey,  Abijah  c.  1760  (?) 

Norton,  Samuel  c.  1790 


W.  GOWEN 
(in  r  e  c- 
tangle) ;  W 
G  (in  rec- 
tangle) 
GRANT  (in 


Marblehead. 
rectangle) 

Marblehead 

Bolton 

Nantucket 

Charlestown.  J.  HANCOCK 
(in  rectangle) 

Haverhill 

Salem 

Roxbury.  B  H  (arrow?  be- 
tween, in  a  rectangle) 

Mass.(?)  J.  LAMSON  (in 
rectangle);  J  L.  (in  rec- 
tangle) 

Hingham.  E.  Lincoln  (in 
rectangle) 

Newburyport 

Hull.  J.  LORING  (in  car- 
touche); J.  Loring  (script, 
in  rectangle) 

Salem 

Worcester.  T.  LYNDE  (in 
rectangle) 

Charlestown,  1634 

Newbury 

Newburyport 

Newburyport.  J.  M  (in  en- 
grailed rectangle);  I  M 
(script,  in  rectangle);  I  M 
(script  monogram,  in  oval) , 
I  M  (in  rectangle);  I. 
MOULTON  (in  rectangle) 

Newburyport 

Newburyport 

Newburyport.  W.  MOUL- 
T  O  N  (in  rectangle); 
MOULTON  (in rectangle); 
MOULTON  (incised) 

Newburyport 

Newburyport 

Barnstable.  I.  MUNROE 
(in  serrated  rectangle) 

Salem 

Harwich 

Salem.    A  N  (in  rectangle) 

Hingham 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    189 


Osgood,  J. 

1817  (?) 

Salem 

Parker,  Isaac 

1780 

Deerfield 

Perkins,  Houghton 

1735-c.  177 

7  Taunton 

Perkins,  Isaac 

c. 1707-1737 

Chariest  own 

Perkins,  Jacob 

1766- 

Newburypoft 

Phillips,  Samuel 

1658-c.  1722  Salem 

Pierpont,  Benjamin 

1730-1797 

Roxbury.  PIERPONT  (in 
shaped  oval);  B-P  (in 
rectangle) ;  B  PIERPONT 
(in  shaped  oval) 

Prince,  Job 

1680-1708 

Hull 

Putnam,  Edward 

0.  1810 

Salem 

Quincy,  Daniel 

1651- 

Braintree 

Sanderson,  Robert,  Jr. 

1652-1714 

Watertown 

Shreve,  Benjamin 

1813-1896 

Salem 

Stevens  &  Lakeman 

1825 

Salem 

Stickney,  Jonathan 

0. 1796 

Newburyport 

Swan,  Caleb 

1754-1816 

Charlestown 

Swan,  Robert 

1775 

Worcester.  R  SWAN  (in 
rectangle) 

Swan,  William 

1715-1774 

Titcomb,  Francis 

1813 

Newburyport 

Touzell,  John 

c. 1726-1785 

Salem 

Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island: 

Adams,  Pygan  1712-1776 


Adgate,  Wm. 

1744-1779 

Allen,  Joel 

Arnold,  Thomas 

1750' 

Atterbury,  J. 

1799 

Austin,  John 

c.  1770 

Austin,  Josci)h 

1719- 

Avery,  John 

1732-1794 

Avery,  Robert  Staunton 

1771-1846 

Baldwin  &  Baker 

C.1817 

Barrett,  S. 

c.  1760 

Bartholomew,  Roswell 

c.  1780-1830 

Beach,  Miles 

1742-1828 

1771 

1785 

Beach  &  Sanford 

1785 

Beach  &  Ward 

1789-1797 

Beebe,  Stanton 

1818 

Beecher,  Clement 

1801 

Benjamin,  Barzillai 

1774-1844 

Benjamin,  John 

c.  1750 

Benjamin,  Samuel  C. 

1S19 

Billings,  Daniel 

1795 

New  London,  Conn.  P.  A. 
(crowned,  in  rectangle);  P. 
A.  (in  rectangle). 

Norwich 

Middletown,  Conn. 

Newport,  R.  I.  T-A  (in  rec- 
tangle); ARNOLD  and 
T-  A  (script,  in  rectangle); 
ARNOLD  (in  rectangle) 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Preston,  Conn. 

Preston,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Goshen 

Litchfield 

Hartford 

Hartford 

Hartford 

Providence,  R.  I, 

Berlin,  Conn. 
Milford,  Conn. 
Bridgeport,  Conn. 
New  Haven,  Conn. 

Stratford,  Conn.  LB  (in 
oval) 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Preston,  Conn. 


190       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


Bontecou,  Timothy 

1693-1784 

Bontecou,  Timothy,  Jr. 

1723-1789     ; 

Botsford,  Gideon  B. 

1776-1866 

Bradford,  Charles  H. 

Bradley,  Aner' 

1753-1824 

Bradley,  Luther 

1798 

Bradley,  Phineas 

1745-1797     : 

Bradley,  Richard 

1825 

Bradley,  Zebul 

1806 

Brainard,  Charles 

1809 

Breed,  John 

1776              ' 

Breed,  W. 

c.  1755(?) 

Brewer,  Charles 

1803 

Brewer  &  Mann 

1804 

Brewster,  Abel 

ri797 
\1804 

Brown,  Elnathan  C. 

Buel,  Abel 

1742-1825 

Buel,  John 

1783 

Buel,  Samuel 

/1777 
\1779 

Bull,  Caleb 

1791 

Bull,  Martin 

1744-1825 

Bunker,  Benjamin 

1810 

Burdick,  William  S. 

Burnap,  Daniel 

1791 

Burr,  Christopher 

1824 

Burr,  Ezekiel 

1764-1846 

Burr,  William 

1792 

Bushnell,  Phineas 

1775 

Canfield,  Samuel 

1780-1800 

Carpenter,  Joseph 

1747-1804 

Case,  George 

1779 

Casey,  Gideon 

1753 

Casey,  Samuel 

c. 1724-c.  1770 

Champlin,  John 

1745-1800 

Chapin,  Aaron 

1825 

Chittenden,  Ebenezer 

1726-1812 

Church,  Joseph 

1794-1876 

Church  &  Rogers 

1828 

Clark,  Charles 

1798 

Clark,  George  C. 

1813 

Clark,  I. 

c.  1757- 

Clark,  Joseph 

1791 

Clark,  Peter  G. 

1810 

Clark,  Wm. 

1774 

Clark,  James 

1734 

Clarke,  J. 

1734 

Cleveland,  Wm. 

1770-1837 

New  Haven,  Conn. 
New  Haven,  Conn. 
Woodbury,  Conn. 
Westerly,  R.  I. 
New  Haven,  Conn. 
New  Haven,  Conn. 
New  Haven,  Conn. 


New  Haven,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Colchester,  Conn. 

Conn.(?)  W.  Breed  (script) 
and  W.B  (in  rectangles) 

Middletown,  Conn.  C. 
BREWER  (script,  in  car- 
touche) 

Middletown,  Conn. 

Canterbury,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

Westerly,  R.  I. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Middletown  IS.   B    (in   rec- 

Hartford        /    tangle) 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Farmington,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

E.  Windsor,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Guilford,  Conn. 

Middletown,  Conn.  CAN- 
FIELD  (in  long  oval) 

Norwich,  Conn. 

E.  Hartford,  Conn. 

South  Kingston,  R.  I. 

Newport,  R.  I.  S:  CASEY 
(in  rectangle) 

New  London,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Guilford,  Conn.  E  C  (in  oval) 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Conn.(?)  I.  CLARK  (in 
rectangle) 

Danbury,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

New  Milford,  Conn. 

Newport,  R.  I. 

Newport,  R.  I.  I.  Clarke  (in 
large  oval) 

Norwich,  Conn. 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    191 


Coit  &  Mansfield 

1816 

Collins,  Arnold 

1690 

Copp,  J. 

1776 

Crandall,  Benjamin 

1824 

Curtis,  Candee  &  Stiles 

c. 1820 

Curtis,  Lewis 

1797 

Cutler,  Richard 

1736-1810 

Cutler,  Richard  &  Sons 

1806 

Dagget,  Henry 

1800 

Davis  &  Babbitt 

c.  1815 

Davison,  Barzillai 

1738-1828 

Denis,  Ebenezer 

1772-1785 

Denis,  George,  Jr. 

1775 

Deshon,  Daniel 

1697-1781 

Dodge,  Ezra 

1766-1798 

Dodge,  Nehemiah 

1794 

Dodge,  Seril 

1795 

Doolittle,  Amos 

1754-1832 

Doolittle,  Enos 

1781 

Douglas,  Robert 

1769 

Elderkin,  Alfred 

1792 

Elderkin,  Elisha 

/ 1753-1 822 

\1777 

Elliot,  John  A. 

1815 

Ellsworth,  David 

1742-1821 

Fairchild,  Joseph 

1824 

Fairchild,  Robert 

1703-1794 

Fifield,  John  S. 

Fitch,  Allen 

1808' ' 

Fitch  &  Hobart 

1812 

Foot,  William 

1796 

Frost  &  Mumford 

c.  1810 

Gardner,  John 

1734-1776 

Gibbs,  John 

c.  1815 

Gilbert,  Samuel 

1798 

Goodwin,  Horace 

1828 

Goodwin,  H.  &  A. 

1825 

Goodwin,  Ralph 

1828 

Goodwin  &  Dodd 

1812 

Gorham,  Jabez 

1792- 

Gorham,  John 

1820- 

Gorham,  Miles 

1757-1847 

Graham,  Daniel 

1789 

Gray,  John 

1692-1720 

Gray,  Samuel 

1684-1713 

Greene,  Williams  &  Co. 

c.  1815 

Greenleaf,  David 

1737-1800 

Greenleaf,  Joseph 

1778-1798 

Grignon,  Rene 

1708 

Norwich,  Conn. 

Newport,    R.    I.      A   C    (in 
shield) 

New  London,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Woodbury,  Conn. 

Farmington,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

New  London,  Conn. 

New  London,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Providence,  R.  I.,  S.  DODGE 
(serrated  rectangle)  star 
incised  each  side 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

New  London,  Conn. 

Windham,  Conn. 

Killing^vorth,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Sharon,  Conn. 

Windsor,  Conn, 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Stratford,  Conn. 

Westerly,  R.  I. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

East  Haddam,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

New  London,  Conn.  J. 
GARDNER  (in  rectangle) 

Providence,  R.  I.  J.  GIBBS 
(in  rectangle) 

Hebron,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Providence,  R.  L 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

West  SufTield,  Conn. 

New  London,  Conn. 

New  London,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I. 
(Norwich,  Conn. 
\Hartford,  Conn. 

New  London,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 


192       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


Gurley,  Wm. 

1804 

Hallam,  John 

1773 

Hamlin,  Wm. 

1772- 

Hancock,  John 

1772 

Hanks,  Benjamin 

1779 

Harland,  Thomas 

1735- 

1807 

Harland,  Thomas,  Jr. 

1806 

Hart,  Eliphaz 

1812 

Hart,  Judah 

1777 

Hart  &  Brewer 

1803 

Hart  &  Wilcox 

1805 

Hilldrup,  Thomas 

1772- 

Hitchcock,  Ehakim 

1766- 

Hobart,  Joshua 

1813 

Hookey,  Wm. 

c.  1750 

Hopkins,  Jesse 

1766- 

Hopkins,  Joseph 

1730- 

1801 

Hopkins,  Stephen 

1721- 

•1796 

Hotchkiss,  Hezekiah 

1761 

Hughes,  Edward 

1804 

Huntington,  Philip 

1770- 

■1825 

Huntington,  Roswell 

1763 

Jenckes,  John  C. 

1785 

Johonnot,  Wm. 

1766- 

1849 

Kelley,  Allen 

c.  1810 

Kelley,  E.  G.  &  J.  H. 

c.  1820 

King,  Joseph 

1770 

Kinney,  Thomas 

c.  1825 

Kippen,  George 

1790 

Kirtland,  Joseph  P. 

1796 

Lathrop,  Rufus 

■1805 

Lewis,  Isaac 

1815 

Mann,  Alexander 

1804 

Mansfield,  Elisha  H. 

1816 

Marble,  Simeon 

1806 

Merriman,  Marcus 

1767- 

1820 

Merriman,  Marcus  &  Co. 

1806 

Merriman,  Reuben 

1783- 

1866 

Merriman,  Samuel 

1794 

Merriman,  Silas 

1734- 

1805 

Merriman  &  Bradley 

1817 

Merriman  &  Tuttle 

1802 

Merrow,  Nathan 

1783 

Mumford,  Henry  G. 

1813 

Munson,  Amos 

1776 

Munson,  Cornelius 

1742- 

Newberry,  Edwin  C. 

1828 

Nichols,  Bassett 

c.  1815 

Nichols,  Wm.  S. 

1785- 

1871 

Norton,  Andrew 

1765- 

1838 

Norwich,  Conn. 

New  London,  Conn. 

r Providence,  R.  I. 
\Middletown,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Windham,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

Berlin,  Conn. 

Middletown,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Newport,  R.  I. 

Waterbury,  Conn. 

Waterbury,  Conn. 

Waterbury,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Hampton,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

Providence,       R.    I.  J 
JENCKES  (incised) 

Middletown,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Middletown,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

Middletown,  Conn. 

Middletown,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

Ridgefield,  Conn. 

Middletown,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Cheshire,  Conn.     M   M    (in 
rectangle) 

New  Haven,  Conn.     M :  M : 
&  CO  (serrated  rectangle) 

Litchfield,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

East  Hartford,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Wallingford,  Conn. 
/Mansfield,  Conn. 
\ Brooklyn,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Newport,  R.  I. 

Goshen,  Conn. 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL    193 


Norton,  Thomas 

1796 

Noyes,  Samuel 

1747- 

Oaks,  Frederick 

1825 

Oaks  &  Spencer 

1814 

Olmstead,  Nathaniel 

1826 

1750 

Otis,  Jonathan 

1766-1791 

Parmele,  Samuel 

1737-1807 

Parmelee,  James 

1763-1828 

Peabody,  John 

1779 

Peck,  Timothy 

1791 

Perry,  Thomas 

Pitkin,  Henry 

isii" 

Pitkin,  John  0. 

1803 

Pitkin,  Walter 

1808 

Pitkins,  James  F. 

1812 

Pitman,  Saunders 

1732-1804 

Pitman,  John  K. 

1805 

Pitman  &  Darrance 

1795 

Post,  Samuel 

(1736 
1,1783 

Potter,  Niles 

Potwine  &  Whiting 

i735" 

Pratt,  Phineas 

1772 

Prince,  Job 

1680-1708 

Quintard,  Peter 

1737 

Richmond,  G.  &  A.              c. 

1815 

Roath,  Roswell  Walston 

1805 

Rogers,  Daniel 

1750 

Rogers,  Wm. 

1825 

Russell,  Jonathan 

1804 

Sackett  &  Willard                 c. 

1815 

Sadd,  Hervey 

1776-1840 

Sanford,  Isaac 

1793 

Sargeant,  Jacob 

/1761-1843 
\1795 

Shcthar,  Samuel 

1795 

Shethar  &  Thompson 

1798 

Shipman,  Nathaniel 

1764-1853 

Sib  ey  &  Marble 

1802 

Staniford,  John 

1790 

Stanton,  Enoch 

1745-1781 

Stanton,  Daniel 

1755-1781 

Farmington,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Newport,  R.  I.  J.  Otis  (large 
script  in  rectangle)  and 
Otis  (small  script  in  rec- 
tangle); OTIS  (large,  in 
rectangle);  J.  Otis  (script, 
in  oval) 

Middletown,  Conn. 

Guilford,  Conn.  S.  Parmele 
(in  shaped  rectangle) 

Durham,  Conn. 

Enfield,  Conn. 

Middletown,  Conn. 

Westerly,  R.  I. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I.  PITMAN 
(in  rectangle);  Pitman 
(script  in  rectangle) 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

New  London,  Conn. 

Westerly,  R.  I. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Lynne,  Conn. 

INIilford,  Conn. 

Norwalk,  Conn.  P.  4  (in 
square) ;  P  Q  (in  square) 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

Newport,  R.  I.  D  R  (in  car- 
touche); D.  ROGERS  (in 
rectangle) ;  D  R  (in  shajjed 
shield) 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Ashford,  Conn. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

New  Hartford,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Mansfield,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Litchfield,  Conn. 

Litchfield,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Windham,  Conn. 

Stonington,  Conn. 

Stonington,  Conn. 


19-4        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


Stanton,  Zebulon 
Stillman,  Barton 
Stillman,  Paul 
iStillman,  William 
Sutton,  Robert 
Tanner,  John 
Terry,  Geer 
Thompson,  Isaac 
Tilley,  James 
Tompkins,  Edmimd 
Tracy,  Erastus 
Tracy,  Gurdon 
Trott,  Jonathan 

Trott,  Jonathan,  Jr. 
Trott,  John  Proctor 


Trott  &  Brooks 
Trott  &  Cleveland 
Tuttle,  Bethuel 
Ufford  &  Burdick 
Veazie,  Joseph 
Vernon,  Samuel 


1753-1828 


1767-1858 

1825 

1750 

1814 

1798 

1740-1792 

1757- 

1768-1798 

1767-1792 

1734-1815 

1771-1803 
1769-1852 


1798 
1792 
1806 
1814 
1815 
1683-1737 


Vinton,  David 

1792 

Wallace  Wm   F 

Walworth,  Daniel 

1785' 

Ward,  Bilhous 

1729- 

■1777 

Ward,  James 

1768- 

•1856 

Ward,  WiUiam 

1736- 

1829 

Ward  &  Bartholomew 

1804 

Ward,  Bartholomew 

&  Brainard 

1809 

Wardin,  Daniel 

1811 

Weeden,  Peleg 

c.  1803 

Welles,  George 

1784- 

•1827 

Wheaton,  Caleb 

1784- 

•1827 

Wheaton,  Calvin 

1790 

Whipple,  Arnold 

1825 

Whitaker  &  Greene 

c.  1825 

White,  Amos 

1773 

Whitting,  Charles 

1725- 

-1765 

Wilcox,  Alvan 

1816 

Wilcox,  Cyprian 

1827 

WilUams,  iDeodat 

1775 

WiUiams,  Stephen 

1799 

Wilmot,  Samuel,  Jr. 

1808 

Wilmot  &  Stillman 

1800 

Stonington,  Conn. 

Westerly,  R.  I. 

Westerly,  R.  I. 

Hopkinton,  R.  I. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

Newport,  R.  I. 

Enfield,  Conn. 

Litchfield,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Waterbury,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

Norwich,  Conn. 

New     London,     Conn.       J. 

TROTT  (in  cartouche) 
New  London,  Conn. 
New   London,   Conn.     J:  P. 
TROTT    (in    long    oval); 
J.  P.  T.   (in  serrated  rec- 
tangle) 
New  London,  Conn. 
New  London,  Conn. 
New  Haven,  Conn. 
New  Haven,  Conn. 
Providence,  R.  I. 
Newport,  R.  I.  S  V  (in  heart- 
shaped   shield,   trefoil  be- 
low); S  V  (in  heart,  fleur- 
de-lis    below);    S    V     (in 
heart-shaped  shield,   cross 
below) 
Providence,  R.  I. 
Westerly,  R.  I. 
Middletown,  Conn. 
Guilford,  Conn.    BW  (in  rec- 
tangle) 
Guilford,  Conn. 
Litchfield,  Conn. 
Hartford,  Conn. 

Hartford,  Conn. 
Bridgeport,  Conn. 
North  Kingston,  R.  I. 
Hebron,  Conn. 
Providence,  R.  I. 
Providence,  R.  I. 
Providence,  R.  I. 
Providence,  R.  L 
Haddam  Landing,  Conn. 
Norwich,  Conn. 
Norwich,  Conn. 
New  Haven,  Conn. 
Hartford,  Conn. 
Providence,  R.I. 
New  Haven,  Conn. 
New  Haven,  Conn. 


SILVER;  DOMESTIC  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL     195 


Woodward,  Antipas 

1791 

Middletown,  Conn. 

Woodward,  Eli 

1812 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Yeomans,  Elijah 

1794 

Hartford,  Conn. 

Young,  Ebenezer 

1778 

Hebron,  Conn. 

Other  Places: 

Adam,  J. 

Alexandria,  D.  C. 

Addison,  George  M. 

isoi' ' 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Aitkins,  W. 

1802 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Austin,  Benjamin 

1775 

Portsmouth,  N.  H. 

Baielle,  Lewis 

1799 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Balch  &  Fryer 

1784 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Baldwin,  Jedediah 

c. 1790 

Hanover,  N.  H. 

Ball,  W. 

1802 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Barry,  Standish 

1790 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Becker,  Philip 

1764 

Lancaster,  Pa. 

Bedford,  John 

c.  1785 

FishkiU,  N.  Y.  1  Bedford 
(script,  in  rectangle) 

Benjamin,  Solomon 

1817 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Bevan,  Richard 

1804 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Blanchard,  A. 

c.  1800 

Lexington,  Ky.  A.  BLAN- 
CHARD (in  long  oval) 

Boehme,  Charles  L. 

1804 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Boyd,  William 

1810 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Brigden,  Timothy 

1813 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Brown  &  Houlton 

c.  1799 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Burot,  Andrew 

1824 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Bnssey,  Thomas 

1799 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Butler,  John 

1763 

Fahnouth  (Portland),  Me. 

Butler,  N. 

1803 

Utica,  N.  Y. 

Campbell,  R. 

1824 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Carson,  Thomas 

1813 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Carson  &  Hall 

1813 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Coleman,  Nathaniel 

1790 

Burlington,  N.  J. 

Daverne,  John 

1799 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Dickerson,  John 

1778 

Morristow^n,  N.  J. 

Douglas,  Cantwell 

1799 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Drowne,  Benjamin 

1800 

Portsmouth,  N.  H. 

Drowne,  Samuel 

1749-1815 

Portsmouth,      N.      H.     S  x 
Drowne    (in   rectangle) ; 
S  X  D  (in  rectangle) 

Drown,  T.  P. 

c.  1805 

Portsmouth  (?)  T.  P. 
DROWN  (in  rectangle) 

Erwin,  John 

1817 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Evertson,  John 

1813 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Farley,  Charles 

1812 

Portland,  Me. 

Flott,  Lewis 

1817 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Folsom,  John 

1781 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Forman,  B.  B. 

1813 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Franciscus,  George 

1817 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Gerrish,  Timothy 

1753-1813 

Portsmouth,  N.  H. 

Hall,  Abijah 

1813 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Hall,  Charles 

1765 

Lancaster,  Pa. 

Hall,  Joseph 

1781 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Ham,  George 

1810 

Portsmouth,  N.  H. 

196       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


Hamilton,  James  1766 

Holland,  Littleton  c.  1804 

Holton,  David  1804 

How,  David  1805 

Howard,  Thomas  1620 

Howe,  Otis  1817 
Huges,  Christopher  &  Co.        1773 

Hull,  John  1624 

Hurtin  &  Burgi  1766 

Huston,  James  1799 

Hutton,  Isaac  1767- 


1683 


1855 


Hyde  &  Goodrich  1830 

Jackson,  James  c.  1775 

Jackson,  Joseph  1804 

Jacobs,  George  1802 

Johonnot,  William  1766- 

Johnson,  M.  W.  1815 

Kenrick,  Anwill  c.  1775 

Kirk,  Samuel  c.  1815 

Kirk,  Samuel  &  Sons  1817 

Le  Ret,  Peter  c.  1799 

Lewin,  Gabriel  1771 

Mix,  James  1817 

Moore,  Robert  c.  1775 

Moulton,  Enoch  1780 

Ogier,  John  1799 

Parker,  George  1804 

Phelps,  Jedediah  1781 

Poncet,  Lewis  

Reeves,  Stephen  1767 

Roe,  W.  1803 

Sadtler,  Philip  1824 

Sardo,  Michael  1817 

Scofield,  Solomon  1815 

Shepherd,  Robert  c.  1800 

Simes,  WiUiam  1800 

Sheets  1697 
Smith,  John  and  Thomas         1817 

Stall,  Joseph  1804 

Stone,  Adam  1804 

TenEyck,  John  c.  1730 

Truax,  Henry  R.  1815 

Van  Bergen,  John  1813 

Vincent,  Richard  1799 

Warner,  Andrew  E.  1811 

Warner,  A.  E.  &  T.  H.  1805 

Warner,  Thomas  H.  1814 

Webb,  Barnabas  c.  1729- 

Wedge,  S.  1804 

Wilson,  Hosea  1817 

Wright,  Alexander  c.  1775 


1849 


Annapolis,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Castine,  Me. 

Jamestown,  Va. 

Portsmouth,  N.  H. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

England 

Bound  Brook,  N.  J. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Albany,  N.  Y.  HUTTON 
(in  rectangle,  eagle  in  cir- 
cle); HUTTON  (in  rec- 
tangle, eagle's  head  in  oval) 

New  Orleans,  La. 

Maryland 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Windsor,  Vt. 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Maryland 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Maryland, 

Portland,  Me. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Great  Barrington,  Vt. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

BurUngton,  N.  J. 

Kingston-on-Hudson 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Portsmouth,  N.  H. 

Henrico,  Va. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Albany,  N.  Y.    IT  (in  oval)? 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md.    A.  E.  WAR- 
NER (in  rectangle) 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md. 
-c.  1786  Thomaston,  Me. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Maryland 


CHAPTER  VII 

EARLY  AMERICAN  PEWTER 

PEWTER  is  coming-  into  its  own  again.  It  is  win- 
ning its  new  place  in  our  esteem  not  merely  as 
the  object  of  a  passing  fad,  but  through  a  rational 
recognition  of  its  many  estimable  qualities.  Down  the 
centuries  from  Roman  days— in  the  East  from  a  much 
earlier  period,  probably — it  has  enjoyed  a  measure  of 
popularity  in  proportion  to  the  varied  scope  of  its  em- 
ployment. Its  vogue  has  waxed  and  waned  and  waxed 
again,  from  time  to  time,  with  the  passing  whims  of 
fashion,  but  its  genuinely  useful  qualities  always  pre- 
served for  it  a  sure  place  among  the  resources  of 
domestic  equipment  until  our  unfortunate  forebears, 
whose  lot  it  was  to  pass  through  the  deadly  doldrums 
of  smug  Victorian  artificiality  and  ugly  dulness,  learned 
to  look  on  it  with  contempt,  along  with  some  other 
things  that  had  previously,  and  have  since,  been  rated 
for  their  intrinsic  worth  or  beauty  rather  than  by  "how 
much  they  cost, ' '  and  relegated  it  to  the  garret  or  cellar 
or  to  any  base  use  that  chance  might  suggest. 

With  a  return  to  more  rational  standards  of  judg- 
ment, we  have  once  more  begun  to  heed  the  claims  of 
pewter  to  our  consideration,  and,  though  we  are  apt 
to  regard  it  chiefly  as  a  decorative  asset,  its  utilitarian 
aspect  has  not  been  wholly  overlooked.  While  direct- 
ing our  admiration  pewterward,  it  is  gratifying  to  find 
that  our  own  early  American  pewter  was  possessed  of 
no  mean  merit  and,  in  many  instances,  was  not  behind 
the  product  of  the  'British  pewterers  in  point  of  design, 
quality  of  the  metal,  or  excellence  of  workmanship. 

197 


198       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Some  of  the  early  American  pewter  has  furnished  pat- 
terns for  modern  emulation,  and  the  suspicion  is  not 
wanting  that  the  reproducer  occasionally  sends  forth 
a  crop  of  brand-new  antiques.  A  survey  of  the  chief 
characteristics  of  early  American  pewter,  therefore, 
will  be  of  use  both  to  the  professional  collector  and  to 
the  amateur,  who  may  delight  now  and  then  in  picking 
up  a  choice  piece  in  the  course  of  travel  or  in  poking 
about  in  provincial  second-hand  or  antique  shops,  where 
many  a  rich  find  is  often  made.  It  will  be  of  use,  also, 
to  the  reviver  of  crafts  to  know  exactly  what  the  old 
American  pewter  w^as  like  and  wherein  its  points  of 
excellence  consisted. 

Pewter  was  in  great  demand  in  the  Colonies  all 
through  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  and 
also  during  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth.  In  nearly 
every  household  it  took  the  place  that  was  afterwards 
filled  by  either  silver  or  porcelain,  and,  even  in  the 
houses  of  the  wealthier  colonists,  w^here  both  silver  and 
china  in  considerable  quantities  were  possessed  and 
treasured  for  use  upon  state  occasions,  pewter  occupied 
an  important  place  in  ordinary  daily  use. 

Although  much  of  the  pewter  used  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  Colonial  period,  and  indeed  during  a  good 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was.brought  from  Eng- 
land, a  great  deal  was  made  by  enterprising  craftsmen 
among  the  colonists.  When  we  find  that  silversmiths 
began  to  ply  their  calling  with  success  before  1650,  it  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at  that  pewterers  should  have  done 
the  same,  especially  as  they  had  a  far  more  universal 
demand  to  supply  with  their  wares,  and  accordingly  we 
learn  of  at  least  one  pewterer  at  work  in  Boston  as 
early  as  1639. 


EARLY   NINETEENTH  CENTURY  PEWTER  COFFEE  POT 
Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY  PEWTER  SUGAR  BOWL  AND  CREAM  PITCHER 
Courtesy  of  Jolin  C  Nip|)es,  Esq.,  Haddonficld,  Now  Jersey 


LATE    EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY    PEWTER    TEAPOT 
In  possession  of  Harold  D.  Eberlein,  Esq. 


PEWTER  PLATTER  AND  PEWTER  BASON,  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 
Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


EARLY  AMERICAN  PEWTER  199 

Boston,  during  the  first  part  of  the  Colonial  period, 
was  the  chief  distributing  centre  of  British  pewter,  as 
well  as  the  chief  seat  of  pewter  manufacture.  New 
York  and  Philadelphia  soon  followed  in  both  respects, 
and  a  great  deal  of  pewter  ware,  excellent  in  design  and 
in  the  quality  of  metal,  was  produced  in  each  of  those 
cities,  although  the  variety  in  design  was  not  as  great, 
perhaps,  as  in  the  pieces  sent  from  England.  The  speci- 
mens illustrated  are  chiefly  of  Boston,  New  York,  and 
Philadelphia  make.  Good  pewter  ware  was  made  in 
other  places,  to  be  sure,  but  the  characteristic  types  are 
to  be  judged  from  the  products  of  those  three  places, 
which  are  thoroughly  representative.  The  local  and 
distinctive  peculiarities  of  American  pewter  are  better 
learned  by  sight  than  by  description,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose the  collections  in  museums  are  invaluable,  as  they 
afford  opportunities  for  minute  comparison  and  study. 

The  making  of  pewter  ware  was  not  wholly  confined 
to  craftsmen  whose  time  was  altogether  given  up  to  this 
occupation.  Not  a  little  of  the  small  moulded  ware, 
such  as  spoons  and  other  objects  that  soon  wore  out 
with  constant  use,  was  cast  by  amateurs,  and  this  home- 
made aspect  of  the  subject  lends  an  additional  note  of 
interest.  The  possessor  of  a  mould  would  lend  it  to  his 
neighbours  all  through  the  village  or  countryside  as 
they  had  occasion  to  use  it,  and  the  comparative  ease 
with  which  the  alloy  was  prepared  and  managed  made 
it  a  simple  matter  for  them  to  replenish  their  stock  as 
it  became  unfit  for  further  use.  This  practice  was  quite 
in  accord  with  the  Colonial  spirit  of  self-helping  re- 
sourcefulness. It  was  also  a  common  practice,  at  a 
time  when  so  many  things  that  we  now  buy  in  shops 
were  made  by  travelling  craftsmen  and  artisans  at  the 


200        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

farmstead,  for  tinkers  who  owned  pewter  moulds  to 
make  a  yearly  round  of  visits  and  cast,  on  the  spot, 
what  was  needed  by  their  customers. 

NATURE  AND  VARIETIES  OF  PEWTER 

Definitions  are  always  helpful  in  enabling  us  to 
know  exactly  Avhere  we  stand,  and,  before  going  into 
further  considerations,  it  will  be  well  to  state  that 
pewter  is  an  alloy  of  which  the  preponderating  com- 
ponent is  tin.  The  other  elements  entering  into  the 
composition  are  various  and,  at  different  times  and 
places,  have  been  used  in  varying  proportions,  but, 
ordinarily  speaking,  lead  is  the  principal  secondary 
substance.  Sometimes,  however,  in  preparing  the  alloy, 
lead  has  been  altogether  omitted  and  its  place  has  been 
taken  by  copper.  A  broad  definition,  by  Mr.  Starkie 
Gardner,  of  the  character  of  the  allov  observes  that 
''The  proportions  are  so  variable  that  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  exclude  any  in  which  tin  forms  the  bulk, 
where  the  result  is  a  darkish  silvery,  soft  metal,  fusible 
at  a  low  temperature,  and  eminently  adapted  to  a 
variety  of  household  and  artistic  purposes." 

In  American-made  pewter,  lead,  for  the  most  part, 
was  the  secondary  element.  The  relative  proportions 
of  tin  and  lead,  however,  varied  considerably.  The 
finer  the  pewter  and  the  higher  the  percentage  of  tin, 
occasionally  with  a  slight  admixture  of  brass  entering 
into  the  composition,  the  whiter,  harder  and  more  sil- 
very the  surface.  On  the  other  hand,  a  large  percentage 
of  lead  gave  the  surface  of  the  pewter  a  dark  or  bluish 
tone  lacking  the  brilliance  and  lustre  of  that  of  superior 
quality.  The  proportion  of  tin  sometimes  ran  as  high 
as  ninety  per  centum,  or  even  more.    At  the  other  end 


EARLY  AMERICAN  PEWTER  201 

of  the  scale,  lead  in  excess  of  twenty-five  per  centum 
was  now  and  again  employed. 

As  may  be  readily  imagined,  this  variation  caused 
the  widest  diversity  in  (juality  and  appearance  of  differ- 
ent pieces  of  old  pewter.  A  surplus  of  lead  in  the  alloy 
will  account  for  the  dull,  dark  surface,  often  badly 
scarred  and  eroded,  of  many  pieces  that  turn  up  in 
antique  shops.  It  is  useless  to  try  to  make  these  take 
on  the  same  soft,  mellow  sheen,  the  same  satiny  surface 
of  polished  silver  as  seen  on  pewter  ware  made  from  a 
superior  quality  of  alloy.  It  is  only  really  good  pewter, 
with  a  high  percentage  of  tin  and  a  low  percentage  of 
other  components,  that  can  be  expected  to  exhibit  the 
delightful  patina  somewhat  comparable  to  that  of  old 
hand-wrought  silver. 

In  England  a  high  standard  of  pewter  metal  and 
pewter  workmanship  was  maintained  by  the  Pe\^i;erers ' 
Company  in  London  and  by  other  similar  organisations 
in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  members  were 
required  to  observe  certain  regulations  and  preserve  an 
alloy  of  approved  proportions.  It  was  also  customary 
to  apply  touch-marks,  analogous  to  the  hall-marks  upon 
silver  plate,  and  the  name  of  the  maker.  Although 
the  regulations  of  the  pewterers'  guilds  were  not  so 
rigorously  enforced  by  legislation  and  penalties  as  were 
the  regulations  governing  silversmiths,  and  although 
many  pieces  were  debased  in  recasting  through  the 
agency  of  unscrupulous  itinerant  tinkers  and  pedlars, 
public  opinion  and  the  moral  force  of  the  authorised 
craft  guilds  served  to  keep  the  average  purity  of  the 
metal  and  the  average  quality  of  workmanship  up  to  a 
fairly  satisfactory  level. 

In  America  there  was  no  compulsory  standard  of 


202       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

excellence  to  be  observed  as  a  gauge,  as  there  usually 
was  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the  only 
restraining  influence  for  preserving  a  high  quality  of 
metal  came  from  respect  for  tradition  and  the  pew- 
terer's  sense  of  common  honesty,  along  with  shrewd 
discrimination  on  the  part  of  the  buyer,  and  the  seller's 
knowledge  that  his  wares  were  made  in  competition 
with  the  imported  pewter  and  that  an  obvious  disparity 
in  metal  or  workmanship  must  inevitably  damage  his 
trade.  So  far  as  statutory  restrictions  were  concerned, 
any  tinker  who  had  the  necessary  moulds  was  free  to 
mix  his  alloy  and  make  his  wares  as  he  chose,  without 
regard  to  fixed  and  compelling  regulations.  Under  the 
circumstances,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  metal 
in  some  of  the  home-made  pewter  w^as  of  poor  quality. 

ARTICLES  MADE 

Articles  of  pewter  may  in  general  be  classified 
under  the  heads  of  ''sad  ware"  and  "hollow-ware." 
Sad  ware  included  such  flat  or  slightly  concave  pieces 
as  were  wrought  into  the  required  shape  by  hammering 
them  from  a  flat  sheet  of  metal.  The  word  ''sad"  in 
this  connexion  probably  refers  to  the  quality  of  the 
metal  used,  which  was  what  was  technically  known  as 
"fine  pewter,"  an  alloy  of  tin  "satiated"  or  "sat- 
urated" with  as  much  copper  as  "of  its  own  nature  it 
will  take."  The  alloy  of  tin  and  copper  was  especially 
ductile  and  readily  lent  itself  to  the  process  of  shaping 
with  the  hammer.  Under  the  head  of  flat  ware  or  sad 
ware  are  numbered  platters,  chargers,  large  plates, 
trenchers,  trays,  or  such  dishes  as  could  be  fashioned 
without  casting  in  a  mould. 

"  Hollow- ware "  is  a  term  sufficiently  obvious  as 


EARLY  AMERICAN  PEWTER 


203 


designating  bowls,  tankards,  mugs  (Fig.  1,  B),  pitchers, 
and  all  other  concaved  or  hollow  pieces.  Hollow-ware 
articles  and  many  small  plates  were  cast  in  moulds, 
sometimes  in  as  many  as  three  or  four  pieces,  which 
had  to  be  built  up  and  soldered  together. 

The  articles  made  in  pewter  embraced  a  long  list, 
comprising  numerous  items  of  domestic  equipment  tliat 
have  been  made  of  silver,  glass,  porcelain,  pottery,  or 
some  other  material  since  pewter  making  declined  in 
the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  century.    Besides  the 


T?  ■  K'°-.u-r,A',  Tankard  by  William  Wills.  Philadelphia,  early  nineteenth  centurv 
Friahmutii  Collection  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industril  Art  B  AJe 
MugbyParksBoyd.Philadalphia,  1800-1812.  "'  ^ri,.      «,   Ale 

Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

pewter  for  domestic  use,  there  were  pewter  vessels  for 
ecclesiastical  purposes.  Church  vessels  included 
chalices,  patens,  beakers,  flagons  or  tankards,  alms 
dishes,  and  baptismal  bowls.  Some  of  the  pewter 
church  sets,  and  also  the  later  Britannia  sets,  may  still 
be  found  in  use  in  remote  rural  churches,  or,  if  their 
place  has  been  taken  by  more  recently  acquired  silver 
vessels,  they  are  usually  preserved  for  association's 
sake,  although  this  is  not  invariably  the  case.  The 
writers  remember  some  years  ago  to  have  picked  up 


204        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

in  a  Massachusetts  coast  town  what  purported  to  be 
the  baptismal  bowl  of  the  old  First  Church  of  Cohasset. 
It  was  a  bowl  of  singularly  graceful  contour,  raised  on 
a  pedestal,  and  closely  resembled  a  fruit  dish. 

The  pieces  of  domestic  pewter  most  usually  found  in 
America  are  articles  of  table-ware  and  include  salt  cel- 
lars, which  are  for  the  most  part  early  and  follow  the  old 
English  pattern  of  the  circular  or  trencher  salt;  mugs 
or  cans;  tankards  (Fig.  1,  A)  or  flagons;  pitchers  and 
jugs ;  porringers ;  plates,  platters,  and  chargers ;  dishes ; 
bowls;  teapots  and  coffee  pots   (Fig.  2,  A  and  B) ; 


Fig.  2. — A,  Coffee  Pot  by  Boardman  &  Co.,  New  York,  o.  1830.     E,  Teapot  by 
Boardman  &  Hall,  Philadelphia,  c.  1825. 

Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  IndustrialArt. 

creamers  and  sugar  bowls  and  butter  dishes.  The 
writers  understand  that  forks  were  sometimes  made 
of  pewter,  but  they  have  never  seen  any.  Spoons,  both 
large  and  small,  are  of  common  occurrence.  Besides  all 
these,  which  may  be  found  in  considerable  numbers, 
there  were  other  pieces  of  table-ware  that  seem  not  to 
have  been  manufactured  quite  so  extensively,  or,  at  any 
rate,  they  have  not  so  numerously  survived  the  ravages 
of  time.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  soup  tureens, 
chocolate  pots,  saucers,  sifters,  hot-water  dishes,  egg 
cups,  pepper  shakers,  mustard  pots,  and  tea-caddies. 


EARLY  AMERICAN  PEWTER  205 

The  miscellaneous  articles  not  to  be  included  in 
table-ware  are  ladles,  canisters,  boxes  for  spices, 
powder,  and  the  like,  tobacco  boxes,  trays  and  salvers, 
buckles,  ink  pots,  measures  (Fig.  3,  B),  vases  and 
ewers  and  basons.  Some  of  these,  such  as  measures 
and  basons,  are  frequently  to  be  met  with ;  others,  such 
as  buckles  and  spice  boxes,  are  to  be  found  only  occa- 
sionally. One  old  pewter  bason,  known  to  the  writers, 
was  used  until  almost  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century 
for  the  ablutions  of  guests'  hands  at  the  pump  in  the 
garden  of  a  distinguished  old  country  house  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Philadelphia  where  primitive  Colo- 
nial customs  were  maintained  unchanged  by  the  march 
of  modern  fashion.  Candlesticks  are  fairly  numerous, 
and  lamps,  with  one  or  more  burners,  are  of  quite  com- 
mon occurrence.  The  latter  are  distinctively  American 
pieces  (Fig.  4,  A  and  B ;  Fig.  3,  A). 

PROCESSES  AND  ALLOYS 

Pewter  ware  was  fashioned  by  (1)  hammering,  (2) 
by  casting  in  moulds,  or  (3)  by  a  combination  of  both 
processes.  It  was  finished  either  (1)  by  hand  or  else 
(2)  by  turning  and  burnishing  on  a  lathe 

The  equipment  of  tools  and  appliances  required  was 
comparatively  simple.  It  included  moulds,  a  lathe,  a 
swage,  hammer,  burnishers,  gouges,  chisels,  hooks, 
point  tools,  a  spear  grater,  and  a  spear  burnisher. 

The  qualities  of  pewter  employed  were  designated 
by  three  names :  fine  pewter,  or  the  best  quality,  which 
''consisted  of  tin,  with  the  addition  of  as  much  brass 
or  copper  as  the  tin  could  take  up."  Of  this  were  gen- 
erally made  platters,  chargers,  and  articles  that  were 
square,  ribbod,  or  fluted.  The  second  quality  ''con- 
sisted of  tin  and  lead  in  the  ratio  of  112 :  26  and  was 


206       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

used  for  articles  more  or  less  round  in  shape."  The 
third  quality  was  called  trifle,  much  used  for  common 
tankards  and  mugs,  and  was  ''sometimes  made  with 
nearly  forty  per  centum  of  lead."  Ley-metal,  lea,  or 
lay  was  common  pewter,  or  pewter  below  the  prescribed 
standard  of  purity. 

When  antimony  was  used  instead  of  lead,  the  alloy 
was  harder  and  more  brittle.  More  than  twenty  per 
centum  of  lead  darkened  the  alloy  and  produced  a  bluish 
tinge.  Good  Britannia  metal,  consisting  of  a  high  per- 
centage of  tin  with  a  small  quantity  of  antimony  and  a 

iif 


Fig.  3.  A,  Fluid  Lamp  with  single  wick.  B,  Measure,  Philadelphia  made,  early 
nineteenth  century.  Friahmuth  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  In- 
dustrial Art. 

still  smaller  quantity  of  copper,  is  really  pewter  of 
excellent  quality. 

The  most  expensive  part  of  the  pewterer 's  outfit  and 
the  most  troublesome  to  make  was  the  set  of  moulds. 
The  most  durable  and  generally  satisfactory  were  made 
of  gun-metal.  They  would  last  indefinitely,  and  there 
are  some  still  in  use  after  more  than  a  century  of  ser- 
vice. They  are  in  good  condition,  just  as  are  the  old 
wood  l)locks  made  in  the  seventeenth  century  for  print- 
ing fabrics,  some  of  which  are  now  being  used  again 
for  the  stamping  of  modern  linens.    Moulds  could  also 


EARLY  AMERICAN  PEWTER 


207 


be  made  of  plaster  of  Paris,  although  they  were  not 
very  durable ;  of  lithographic  stone  or,  finally,  fashioned 
in  sand.  As  mentioned,  the  more  elaborate  moulds  were 
often  made  in  three  or  four  separate  pieces,  and  the 
articles  moulded  in  them  were  moulded  in  separate 
parts.  In  England  a  set  of  moulds  would  often  be  the 
common  property  of  a  pewterers '  guild,  and  they  were 
either  lent  or  hired  to  the  members  as  they  needed  them. 


Fia.  4.    A,  Fluid  Lamp  on  stock.    B,  Fluid  Lamp  with  handle.    Frishmuth Collection, 
Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

Before  casting,  the  moulds  were  prepared  inside 
with  white  of  egg  and  red  ochre  or  with  finely  powdered 
pumice.  After  removal,  the  roughened  surface  of  the 
article  cast  was  smoothed  by  turning  and  finishing  on 
a  lathe. 

If  it  was  possible  to  do  so,  each  article  was  cast  in  a 
single  piece.  This  was  an  easy  enough  matter  in  the 
case  of  small  objects  of  simple  shape ;  where  the  shape 
was  complicated,  however,  it  was  necessary  to  cast  the 


208       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

piece  in  sections  and  then  build  it  up.  For  example,  a 
jug  with  a  wide  belly  and  narrowing  top  would  have 
to  be  cast  in  two  or  three  pieces,  which  would  be  built 
up  by  soldering,  and  then  the  handle  would  also  be 
soldered  on. 

Large  dishes,  chargers,  and  platters  were  made  by 
liammering  from  a  piece  of  metal,  previously  rolled  into 
a  sheet,  and  fashioned  on  a  swage.  The  hammering 
process  firmed  and  stiffened  the  body  of  the  metal  and 
gave  it  an  exceedingly  smooth  surface. 

In  addition  to  the  two  processes  of  hammering  and 
casting  in  moulds,  by  which  latter  most  articles  were 
made,  spinning  on  a  lathe  w^as  also  practised  in  some 
instances,  and  the  final  treatment  was  given  on  an  anvil. 
Many  of  the  best  plates  were  thus  cast  and  turned,  and 
the  hammer  marks  of  the  finishing  process  are  plainly 
visible  on  the  underneath  side  of  the  cur\^e.  These  ham- 
mer marks  are  in  concentric  circles,  just  as  are  the 
hammer  marks  on  the  outside  curve  of  the  bowls. 

Burnishing  was  done  while  the  article  w^as  revolving 
rapidly  on  the  lathe. 

TOUCH-MARKS  AND  MARKING 

The  practice  of  marking  pewter  with  the  maker's 
touch  or  mark  w^as  observed  in  England  from  a  very 
early  date.  In  addition  to  the  touch  or  mark — a  dis- 
tinctive device  to  be  used  by  only  one  person — the 
maker  at  times  stamped  his  initials  or  even  his  whole 
name.  The  Pewterers'  Company  of  London  made 
various  regTilations  about  the  name  of  the  individual 
pewterer,  so  that  sometimes  it  was  allowable  to  stamp 
it  and  sometimes  not.  The  mark  X  was  used  to  denote 
metal  of  especially  fine  quality.  In  addition,  the  cor- 
porate mark  of  the  Pew^terers '  Company  appeared. 


EARLY  AMERICAN  PEWTER  209 

In  America  there  was  no  corporation  to  regulate  the 
making  of  pewter,  and  the  business  conduct  and  prac- 
tices of  the  pewterers,  and  the  placing  of  touch-marks 
upon  American  pewter  was,  therefore,  merely  a  trans- 
ference of  an  English  custom  without  any  particular 
significance  in  this  country  beyond  attesting  a  respect 
for  tradition.  American  pewter,  like  American  silver, 
is  often  unmarked,  and  thus,  at  times,  occasions  embar- 
rassment in  identification.  A  great  deal  of  the  pewter, 
however,  bears  the  touch-mark  of  the  maker,  with  his 
name  or  initials  and,  sometimes,  the  place  of  manu- 
facture. The  touch-mark  is  usually  applied  outside,  on 
the  bottom  of  the  piece,  though  sometimes  it  is  to  be 
seen  inside.  A  favourite  device  with  the  American  pew- 
terers was  the  eagle.  The  later  makers  very  generally 
forsook  the  device  and  merely  stamped  their  name  and, 
perhaps,  the  place  of  manufacture.  As  an  example  of 
pewter  marking  may  be  mentioned  the  device  of  Thomas 
Badger,  of  Boston,  who  wrought  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  His  mark  consisted  of  an 
eagle  with  "Thomas"  above  and  "Badger"  below. 
"Boston"  in  a  rectangle  "svith  scroll  design  was  stamped 
separately. 

Not  all  English  pewter  was  marked,  for  the  itinerant 
tinkers  omitted  marks,  and  the  artisans  not  affiliated 
with  any  of  the  pewter  guilds  frequently  left  off  any 
mark  of  identification.  It  is  not  safe  to  assume,  there- 
fore, that  any  unmarked  piece  of  pewter  is  necessarily 
of  American  origin,  although  a  great  quantity  of  Amer- 
ican ware  is  devoid  of  marks  by  which  the  maker  may 
be  identified. 

The  list  of  American  pewterers  and  their  marks, 
so  far  as  they  can  be  gathered,  printed  at  the  end  of  the 
14 


210       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

chapter,  is  not  by  any  means  complete.  It  will  serve  to 
show,  however,  over  what  a  range  of  time  some  of  the 
best  known  among  tlie  craft  worked.  We  still  await  a 
full  and  exhaustive  list. 

PATTERN  AND  DECORATION 

To  the  unalterable  necessity  for  simplicity  in  the 
ordinary  moulds  we  must  attribute,  at  least  in  part,  the 
prevalent  simplicity  of  form  in  pewter.  Pewter  that  is 
obviously  moulded  in  imitation  of  silver  forms  is  far 
less  felicitious  in  appearance  than  ware  whose  ex- 
pression is  suited  to  the  medium  in  which  it  is  executed. 
The  chief  beauty  of  pewter  must  always  lie  in  truthful- 
ness of  proportion  and  contour  and  the  surface  of  the 
metal,  and  not  in  overly  refined  lines  or  intricate  sur- 
face decoration.  The  very  nature  of  the  metal  pre- 
supposes staunch  and  robust  structure  with  bold, 
vigorous,  and  simple  lines,  and  the  occasional  attempts 
to  emulate  the  work  of  the  silversmiths  make  pewter 
look  finicky  and  foolish. 

The  seventeenth-  and  eighteenth-century  American 
pewter  is  of  robust  aspect  and  generally  pleasing  de- 
sign, very  similar  to  the  English  pieces  of  the  Stuart 
period  in  many  instances.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  however,  a  state  of  decadence  set  in, 
and  from  thence  onward  shapes  were  often  attenuated 
and  meagre.  The  early  pewter,  therefore,  is  usually 
the  best. 

In  England,  and  on  the  Continent  far  more  than 
in  England,  various  elaborate  types  of  pewter  decora- 
tion were,  from  time  to  time,  indulged  in  by  the  pew- 
terers.  With  these,  however,  we  have  no  concern,  be- 
cause they  do  not,  fortunately,  appear  in  pewter  of 
American  make.     The  only  three  methods  of  orna- 


EARLY  AMERICAN  PEWTER  211 

mentation  that  we  have  to  take  into  account  are  the 
distribution  of  lines  and  decorative  but  simple  mould- 
ings; engraving,  and,  finally,  "wriggling"  or  "jog- 
gling," an  exceedingly  effective  but  little-used  method 
of  embellishment,  so  far  as  it  was  practised  by  American 
pewterers. 

Mouldings  and  rims  that  had  to  be  cast  in  a  mould 
necessarily  drew  their  charm  from  simplicity  and  a 
restrained  convexity  of  proportion  rather  than  from 
multiplicity  of  members  and  concavity  or  undercutting. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  mouldings  and  rims  of  the  best 
pewter  were  exceedingly  simple,  but  they  were  well 
placed  and  effective,  and  their  unobtnisive  and  often- 
times flattened  contour  did  not  interrupt  the  beauty  of 
the  metal 's  surface  as  seen  in  the  plain  portions  of  the 
plate  or  vessel. 

Engraving  was  little  used  for  tracing  decorative  de- 
signs on  American  pewter,  and  was  chiefly  confined  to 
lettering  or  to  tracing  one  or  more  lines  on  the  surface 
of  flat-ware  or  about  the  body  of  hollow-ware  near  rims 
or  mouldings.  Even  lettering  was  rarely  employed,  and 
that  sparingly  and  in  the  simplest  manner  possible. 
In  its  absolutely  free  surfaces  pewter  offered  a  con- 
trast to  silver,  which,  though  of  plain  surface,  was  often 
adorned  with  armorial  bearings  and  ornamentally  let- 
tered inscriptions.  English  pewter  was  occasionally 
embellished  with  engraving,  and  Continental  pewter 
often  displayed  elaborate  embossing,  as  well  as  intricate 
engraved  designs.  By  nature  pewter  was  not  particu- 
larly suitable  as  a  medium  for  engraving.  Deep-cut 
lines  tended  to  w^eaken  the  work,  and  thin,  delicate 
lines  soon  became  wholly  or  partially  effaced. 

"Wriggling"  or  "joggling"  was  a  form  of  surface 


212       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

ornamentation  in  broken  or  wavy  lines  or  what  some- 
times at  first  sight  appeared  to  be  disconnected  gouges, 
done  by  forcing  a  flat-bladed  tool  forward,  breadth- 
wise, with  a  rocking  or  wriggling  motion,  and  holding 
it,  the  while,  at  an  angle  of  about  45  or  50  degrees.  Some 
idea  of  the  method  of  applying  this  process  may  be 
gained  by  pushing  a  carving  chisel  forward  over  a  piece 
of  sheet  lead.    The  character  of  the  wriggled  line  pro- 


FlG.  5.    Sugar  Bowl  with  "  wriggled  "  ornament,  eighteenth  century,  Bucks, 

Pennsylvania. 

Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

duced  was  governed  by  the  speed  and  regularity  of  the 
forward  wriggling  motion  and  the  width  of  blade  of  the 
tool  used.  The  blade  of  the  tool  was  usually  about  one 
thirty-second  of  an  inch  wide.  Scrolls,  foliated  designs, 
lettering,  and  various  decorative  devices  could  thus  be 
executed  and  made  to  cover  the  whole  surface  if  desired. 
The  pear-shaped  sugar  bowl  illustrated  (Fig.  5)  shows 
a  good  example  of  wriggled  decoration.    It  was  made 


EARLY  AMERICAN  PEWTER  213 

in  Pennsylvania,  either  in  Bucks  or  Berks  County,  about 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  its  contour 
approximates  that  of  some  contemporary  silver  sugar 
bowls. 

Other  forms  of  decoration,  such  as  pearling,  tracing, 
and  punch-work,  to  be  seen  on  foreign  pewter,  were  not 
practised  by  American  pewterers,  or  only  in  such  ex- 
ceptional cases  that  they  cannot  be  considered  as  in  any 
sense  representative. 

THE  CARE  AND  CLEANING  OF  PEWTER 

Much  of  the  old  pewter  that  one  picks  up  in  antique 
shops  and  at  country  sales  has  been  so  abused  or 
neglected  that  its  surface  is  not  prepossessing.  Pewter, 
as  well  as  any  other  metal,  in  its  normal  condition 
should  be  kept  clean  and  at  least  reasonably  bright. 
There  are  those  that  profess  to  admire  it  more  when  it 
has  a  dull  and  ancient  look,  but,  in  the  days  when  it  was 
made  and  habitually  used  and  prized,  housewives  took  a 
pride  in  keeping  it  immaculately  polished,  and  it  is  only 
when  polished  that  the  beautiful  sheen,  which  consti- 
tutes a  great  part  of  its  charm,  can  be  seen.  By  proper 
treatment,  old  pewter  pieces  with  dull,  disfigured,  and 
corroded  surfaces — if  the  metal  be  of  at  all  a  good 
quality — can  be  restored  to  their  pristine  beauty,  or, 
at  any  rate,  to  some  degree  of  it. 

If  pewter  is  to  be  left  for  long  periods  without  an 
occasional  rubbing,  it  is  well  to  wipe  it  with  a  woollen 
rag  and  a  touch  of  vaseline,  leaving  a  very  thin  and 
virtually  invisible  coat  of  vaseline  on  it. 

The  black  oxide  often  found  on  pewter  that  has 
been  neglected  for  a  long  time  may  be  removed  in  either 
one  of  two  ways.  The  first  is  to  apply  hydrochloric  acid 
with  a  brush  or  with  a  rag  held  between  the  cleft  ends 


214        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

of  a  stick.  When  the  oxide  scales  soften,  wipe  off  the 
acid  with  a  wet  sponge.  The  second  and  slower  way  is 
to  use  paraffin  oil,  either  as  an  application  or  as  a  bath. 
JSeveral  treatments  may  be  necessary  where  the  pewter 
is  badly  oxidised. 

Do  not  scrape  pewter  to  remove  scratches.  Rub 
first  with  fine  emery  cloth  or  emery  paper  and  then 
apply  a  burnisher.  A  jeweller's  polishing  lathe  or 
buffing  wheel  is  the  best  thing  to  use  for  polishing 
pewter. 

To  clean  pewter,  one  of  the  following  formulae  may 
be  used :  Rub  with  rotten-stone  and  oil  and  finish  with 
dry  rotten-stone  on  a  soft  cloth  or  piece  of  chamois 
skin.  A  paste  of  rotten-stone  and  soft  soap  mixed  with 
turpentine  may  also  be  used,  polishing  off  with  dry 
rotten-stone  and  a  chamois  skin  as  before.  Dry  putty 
powder  or  oxide  of  tin,  rubbed  on  with  a  cloth  or 
chamois  skin ;  oxalic  acid  dissolved  in  water  with  sifted 
rotten-stone,  or,  finally,  almost  any  of  the  commercial 
polishing  pastes  may  be  used  with  satisfactory  results. 

The  making  of  pewter  began  to  decline  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  continued  on  a 
downward  course  until  1835  or  1840,  when  the  practice 
of  the  craft  almost  ceased.  It  was  commercially  dis- 
placed either  by  china,  glass,  and  silver-plated  ware,  or 
else  by  some  of  the  alloys  that  resembled  it.  These 
later  wares  are  often  mistaken  for  pewter,  and,  in  many 
instances,  the  articles  made  in  them  followed  pewter 
forms.  Frequently  they  were  made  by  the  same  in- 
dividuals or  concerns  that  had  previously  made  pewter, 
and  they  may  be  reckoned,  in  a  way,  as  belonging  under 
the  classification  of  pewter,  since  they  are  to  some  de- 
gree evolution!  sed  pewter.    They  all,  however,  lack  the 


EARLY  AMERICAN  PEWTER  215 

subtle  cliarm  of  the  earlier  and  genuine  pewter,  and 
their  colour  and  surface  are  generally  hard  and  un- 
sympathetic in  aspect.  One  who  has  seen  and  handled 
good  pewter  cannot  fail  to  detect  the  difference  without 
much  difficulty. 

The  collector  of  old  American  pewter  is  blessed  with 
numerous  opportunities  for  making  acquisitions,  as 
there  is  scarcely  a  place  in  the  Atlantic  States  and  the 
States  immediately  to  the  west  of  them  where  good 
pieces  may  not  be  picked  up.  In  some  places  one  must 
be  on  the  lookout  for  faked  antiques,  but  the  evidences 
of  age  and  wear  are  too  unmistakable  for  a  person  with 
a  keen  collecting  instinct  and  a  keen  collecting  eye  to 
be  very  easily  deceived. 

Pewter  making  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  necessarily 
a  dead  craft.  Eather  is  it  to  be  considered  as  quiescent 
and  susceptible  of  revival  in  the  proper  hands.  The  art 
nouveau  attempts  in  some  quarters  cannot  be  looked 
upon  as  a  proper  employment  of  the  metal.  The  in- 
spiration for  a  healthy  pewter  revival  must  come  fi'om 
a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  old  forms  and 
methods  of  work.  Like  methods  will  produce  approx- 
imately like  results.  Given  the  taste  and  proper  feeling 
on  the  part  of  the  craftsman  and  a  sympathetic  knowl- 
edge of,  and  respect  for,  the  qualities  of  the  medium  in 
which  he  is  working,  there  is  no  good  reason  why  pewter 
making  should  not  again  assume  an  honourable  place 
in  the  list  of  American  handicrafts. 

The  collections  of  American  pewter  in  the  'Boston 
Museum  of  Art,  the  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School 
of  Industrial  Art  and  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art 
are  especially  worthy  of  study. 


216       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Partial  List  of  American  Pkwtebehs 

Austin,  Richard;  lioston,  17!)0. 

Badger,  lliomas;  Boston,  1789. 

Bassett,  Francis;  New  York,  1786. 

Bassett,  Frederick;  New  York,  1792. 

]{ird,  James;  New  York,  1820. 

Boardman  &  Co.;  New  York,  1824. 

Boardman  &  Hart;  New  York,  1828. 

Boardman,  Thomas  D.;  Hartford,  Conn.,  after  1825. 

Bunisteed,  Thomas;  Boston,  1G54. 

Calder,  William;  Providence,  R.  I.,  1824. 

Clarke,  Thomas;  Boston,  1683, 

Coldwell,  George;  New  York,  1792. 

Comer,  Jolin;  Boston,  1078. 

Danforth,  Samuel;   Hartford,  Conn.,  probably  early  nineteenth  century. 

Dunham,  II.;  Boston,  probably  after  1825. 

Elsworth,  William  I.;   New  York,   1792. 

Fields,  Philip;  New  York,  1799. 

Gleason,  Roswell;  Dorchester,  Mass.,  1830. 

Green,  Andrew;  Boston,  1789. 

Green,  Samuel;  Boston,  1798, 

Green,  Thomas;  Boston,  1789. 

Hamlin,  Samuel  E.;  Providence,  R.  I.,  1824. 

Hart,  Lucius;  New  York,  1828. 

Hero,  Charlotte;  Philadelphia,  1796. 

Kirkby,  William;  New  York,  1786. 

Lafefra  &  Allaire;  New  Y^ork,  1815. 

Lock  (e?),  D.;  New  York,  probably  after  1825. 

M'Ewen  &  Son,  Malcolm;  New  York,  1794. 

Michel,  Andre;  New  Y'ork,  1796. 

Pearse,  Robert;  New  York,  1792. 

Porter,  F.;  Conn.  (  ?),  probably  after  1825. 

Richardson,  George;  Boston,  1825. 

Richardson,  G.;  Cranston,  R.  I.,  early  nineteenth  century. 

Shrimpton,  Henry  "brasier";  Boston,  1665. 

Skinner,  John;  Boston,  1789. 

Trask,  John;  Boston,  1825. 

Welch,  John ;  Boston,  1796. 

Wildes,  Thomas;  New  Y'ork,  1832.  | 

Will,  Henry;  New  York.  1786.  ! 

Will,  William;  Philadelphia,  1796. 

Y^oule  &  Co.,  Thomas;  New  York,  1811. 

Youle,  G.;  New  York,  1798. 

Youle,  Thomas;  New  York,  1815. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

EARLY  AMERICAN  SLIP-DECORATED 

POTTERY 

THE  making  of  slip-decorated  pottery  is  one  of 
the  long-forgotten  early  American  crafts 
brought  to  light  within  comparatively  recent 
years  by  intelligent  collecting  and  searching  enquiry. 
The  characteristics  and  markings  of  these  interesting 
pieces  are  described  in  the  latter  part  of  this  chapter. 
The  manufacture  and  decoration  of  this  species  of 
earthenware  constituted  an  industry  whose  existence 
w^as  unsuspected  by  collectors  and  connoisseurs  until, 
in  1891,  Dr.  Edward  AtLee  Barber,  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art,  in  Philadelphia, 
made  a  discovery  that  soon  led  to  a  wealth  of  finds  and 
opened  up  a  mine  of  engaging  information.  To  Dr. 
Barber's  efforts,  indeed,  we  owe  substantially  all  we 
know  of  the  origin  and  practice  of  this  phase  of  Amer- 
ican ceramic  development,  from  the  initial  attempts  of 
a  few  eighteenth  century  potters  to  the  ultimate  aban- 
donment of  the  kilns,  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

The  incident  that  led  to  Dr.  Barber's  discovery  was 
the  chance  purcliase,  in  a  junk-shop,  of  a  red  earthen- 
ware pie  plate,  decorated  with  a  device  of  flowers  and 
birds,  done  in  sfjraffito,  and  bearing  an  inscription  in  a 
peculiar  German  dialect.  The  plate  was  thought,  at 
first,  to  be  of  European  workmanship,  but  careful 
scrutiny  of  the  inscription  showed  that  some  of  the 
words  were  not  German,  but  "Pennsylvania  Dutch." 

217 


218       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

This  fact,  and  the  enquiries  set  on  foot  regarding  the 
source  whence  this  particular  plate  had  fallen  into  the 
junk  dealer's  hands,  furnished  a  clew  that  led  to  the 
discovery  that  the  art  of  making  this  decorated  pottery 
had  been  brought  from  Germany  and  'Svas  flourishing 
in  Eastern  Pennsylvania  before  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century. ' ' 

Subsequent  investigations  showed  that  slip-deco- 
rated earthenware  was  potted  in  several  other  parts  of 
the  country,  also,  in  the  latter  years  of  the  eighteenth 
century  and  early  in  the  nineteenth.  Outside  of  the 
German  settlements  in  Pennsylvania,  the  small  pot- 
teries that  produced  ware  of  this  description  were 
located  in  Philadelphia ;  in  West  Wliiteland  and  Uwch- 
lan  townships  of  Chester  County,  Pennsylvania;  at 
Morgantown,  in  West  Virginia;  in  Connecticut,  and 
possibly  in  the  upper  part  of  New  York  State  and  one 
or  two  other  places.  The  slip  w^are  made  in  all  the 
potteries,  other  than  those  in  the  German  district  of 
Pennsylvania,  lacked  the  ornate  decoration  whicli  the 
colonists  from  the  Palatinate  lavished  upon  their  work, 
and,  although  it  displayed  some  degree  of  ornamenta- 
tion, the  embellishment  was  nearly  always  of  the 
simplest  type.  It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  the 
making  of  slip-decorated  pottery  in  the  non-Gei*man 
parts  of  the  country  represented  a  survival  of  the  art 
as  practised  by  the  old  English  potters,  and  that  the 
American  potters  were  merely  perpetuating  traditions 
that  they  had  brought  from  their  old  environment,  just 
as  the  Germans  w^ere  perpetuating  their  peculiar  hered- 
itary methods  of  manufacture  and  adornment. 

The  Germans  of  Pennsylvania,  or  the  "Pennsyl- 
vania Dutch,"  as  they  are  commonly  called,  began  to 


SGRAFFITO   SLIP  WARE   PIE  PLATE;   "MISCHIANZA" 

DEVICE,  1780 

John    T.    Morris    Collection,    Pennsylvania    Museum    and    School    of 

Industrial  Art 


SGRAFFITO   SLIP   WAKE    MEAT   DISH;   CPEAM    GROUND; 
TULIP  AND  PEACOCK.     DECORATION"  GREEN   AND 

RED.  1789 
John  T.   Morris  Collection,   Pennsylvania   Museum  and  School  of 

Industrial  Art 


SGRAFFITO    SLIP  WAKE    DISH;    UNITED    DOVE    AND    TULIP. 

DECORATIONS  GREEN  AND  RED,  1786 

John  T.  Morris  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of 

Industrial  Art 


LARGE    SLIP    DECORATED    VEGETABLE    OR    MEAT    DISH. 
CREAM-COLOURED  SLIP  ON  RED  GROUND,  1769 

John  T.   Morris  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of 

Industrial  Art 


SLIP-DECORATED  POTTERY  219 

emigrate  from  their  fatherland  in  1683,  and  continued 
to  come  to  America  in  ever-increasing  numbers  until,  by 
1727,  they  composed  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the 
population  of  the  Province.  After  1727  their  immigra- 
tion Avas  still  more  rapid,  but,  by  the  year  just  men- 
tioned, they  had  indelibly  impressed  with  their  charac- 
teristics the  counties  where  they  were  chiefly  settled — ■ 
Bucks,  Berks,  Montgomery,  Lancaster,  Lehigh,  and 
Northampton.  These  immigrants  hailed  from  various 
German  principalities,  but  most  of  them  came  from  the 
Ehenish  Palatinate  and  adjacent  provinces,  and  the 
local  peculiarities  of  those  same  provinces,  in  dialect 
and  customs,  are  said  to  predominate  to  this  day  in 
the  German  sections  of  Pennsylvania. 

By  far  the  great  majority  of  these  people  were  from 
the  humbler  walks  of  life ;  simple,  sturdy,  industrious 
folk  who  devoted  themselves  to  agriculture  with  all 
their  might  and  main,  staying  on  the  land  they  tilled 
and  carefully  avoiding  the  political  entanglements  of 
their  neighbour  colonists.  They  were  good  farmers, 
thrifty  in  their  habits,  moderate  in  their  wants,  re- 
sourceful and  capable  of  raising  in  their  fields,  or 
making  at  home,  nearly  everything  they  needed — in  a 
word,  they  were  sufficient  unto  themselves  and  quite 
content  to  let  the  world  outside  their  own  small  sphere 
wag  as  it  might,  without  troubling  their  heads  seriously 
about  it. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  how  people  of  such  ten- 
dencies, keeping  to  themselves,  preserved  their  local 
manners  and  customs  quite  distinct  from  those  of  the 
surrounding  communities.  It  is  also  easy  to  under- 
stand how,  under  such  conditions,  people  of  their 
strongly  conservative  temperament  would  faithfully 


220        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

perpetuate  all  the  traditions  tliey  had  brought  with 
them  from  their  old  home.  The  making  of  slip-dec- 
orated pottery  was  extensively  practised  in  the  parts 
of  Germany  from  which  they  came,  and  when  occasion 
arose  for  them  to  engage  in  potting,  what  more  natural 
than  that  thev  should  stick  to  methods  of  manufacture 
and  types  of  decoration  with  which  they  were  thor- 
oughly familiar?  As  stated  before,  these  people  were, 
first  and  foremost,  farmers,  and,  in  nearly  every  in- 
stance, potting  was  a  side  issue,  to  be  pursued  in  off 
seasons  when  farm  duties  were  not  urgent.  Most  of 
the  potteries,  therefore,  were  small  concerns,  operated 
by  one  man,  with  such  occasional  assistance  as  he  might 
require,  so  that  it  is  plain  to  be  seen  why  there  is  often 
such  a  marked  individuality  discernible  in  the  pieces 
coming  from  one  kiln  and  such  a  difference  between 
them  and  the  outjout  of  another  kiln,  perhaps  hard  by. 

VARIETIES  OF  SLIP-DECORATED  WARE 

The  Pennsylvania  German  slip-decorated  ware  was 
the  first  decorated  pottery^  to  be  made  by  white 
settlers  within  the  present  limits  of  the  United  States, 
and  presents  two  distinct  varieties,  which  are  the  con- 
verse of  each  other.  On  one  the  design  is  traced  in  slip, 
while  on  the  other  the  entire  surface  of  the  article  to  be 
decorated  is  covered  with  an  engohe  or  coating  of  slip 

'  It  is  a  matter  of  history  that  a  pottery  was  established  and  worked 
at  Burlington,  New  Jersey,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Pottery  with  a  white  glaze  is  said  to  have  been  made.  One  or  two  frag- 
ments of  such  pottery  have  been  found  in  the  vicinity  and  show  a  simple 
relief  ornamentation.  Presumably  they  are  from  this  source.  The 
refuse  heap  of  the  old  pottery  is  now  covered  by  a  lawn,  whose  owner, 
we  are  informed,  refuses  to  permit  excavation,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to 
identify  the  fragments  as  unmistakably  of  Burlington  origin. 


SLIP-DECORATED  POTTERY  221 

and  the  design  is  then  done  in  sgraffito  or  by  an  incised 
scratching  away  of  the  slip  coat  from  the  underlying 
surface. 

MATERIALS 

The  materials  required  for  the  manufacture  of  slip 
ware  were  simple  and  few  in  number.  The  common 
yellowish  clay,  from  which  the  ordinary  commercial  red 
earthenware  is  made,  formed  the  body  or  base  of  the 
articles  to  be  decorated.  Tlie  slip  or  liquid  clay,  with 
which  the  design  was  applied  or  from  which  the  engobe, 
in  the  case  of  sgraffito  decoration,  was  made,  was  usually 
of  a  cream  colour  and  was  composed  of  light-hued  clay, 
mixed  with  water.  At  first  this  clay  was  imported  from 
overseas,  but  was  afterwards  fetched  from  Jersey. 
The  glaze  was  made  from  either  red  lead  or  galena. 
Various  colouring  substances,  such  as  manganese  and 
verdigris,  were  used  for  the  more  elaborate  pieces. 
Water  was  added  to  the  lead  to  make  a  thin  mixture, 
and  then  ordinary  clay,  worked  fine  and  smooth,  was 
used  as  a  thickening  factor  of  the  preparation. 

IMPLEMENTS 

The  implements  employed  by  the  potters  (Fig.  1) 
were  the  potter's  wheel;  the  smoother  or  rib  (Fig.  1, 
H),  a  ''small  piece  of  wood,  leather,  or  calabasli, 
of  square  or  rounded  form,  usually  having  a  hole  in  the 
centre  for  the  tliumb  and  finger,"  used  to  smooth  the 
outside  surface  of  hollow-ware  while  still  revolving  on 
the  wheel;  the  finishing  brush,  made  of  hog  bristles, 
for  touching  up  parts  that  could  not  be  reached  con- 
veniently by  the  smoother;  the  cutting  wire,  about  a 
foot  long,  with  wooden  hnndles  at  the  ends,  with  which 
vessels  were  loosened  from  the  whool;  the  pounder  or 


222        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

hatter  (Fig.  1,  D),  a  wooden  tool,  '^flat  on  one  side  and 
rounded  on  the  other,  with  a  handle  at  one  end,"  for 
beating  out  the  clay  into  flat  form;  the  rolling  pin 
(Fig.  1,  F),  shaped  like  a  wooden  dough-rolling  pin, 
but  with  separate  handle,  like  a  stick,  passing  through 


Fig.  1.— a,  Plate.  B,  Goggle.  C,  Rule  for  gauging  height  of  vessels  on  potter  s  wheel. 
D,  Batter.  E,  Palette.  F,  Two-handled  Roller.  G,  Disc  Cutter.  H,  Rib  for  smoothing 
surface  of  ware  on  wheel.  J,  Goggle.  K,  Lines  traced  by  slip  cup.  L,  Three-quilled 
Slip  Cup. 

Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

the  cylinder  body,  for  completing  and  evening  the  work 
begun  by  the  batter;  the  disc  cutter  (Fig.  1,  G),  con- 
sisting of  a  ''wooden  arm  supported  on  one  end  by  a 
small  foot  or  block  of  Avood,  of  circular  or  octagonal 
form,  in  which  the  arm  revolved,  and,  in  the  other  end, 


SLIP-DECORATED  POTTERY  223 

set  at  right  angles,  a  metal  point"  adjustable  in  a  series 
of  lioles  along  the  length  of  the  arm;  the  slip  cup  (Fig. 
1,  L)  or  quill  box,  with  one  to  seven  quills,  as  occasion 
required,  from  which  the  slip  was  applied  to  the  piece 
to  be  decorated ;  the  mould  for  shaping  bowels  and  con- 
cave dishes  from  flat  clay  discs,  and,  last  of  all,  the 
decorating  ivheel  or  coggle  (Fig.  1,  B  and  J),  for  notch- 
ing or  indenting  the  edges  of  pie  plates. 

TROCESSES 

After  the  clay  was  ground,  mixed,  kneaded,  and 
workad  to  the  proper  consistency,  it  was  divided  into 
balls  or  lumps,  each  of  which  contained  enough  ma- 
terial to  make  a  vessel  or  dish.  For  making  hollow- 
ware,  a  lump  was  thrown  on  the  potter's  wheel  and 
worked  to  the  desired  shape  in  the  manner  ordinarily 
pursued  by  potters.  For  flat-ware  and  moulded  pieces, 
the  clay  lump  was  beaten  and  then  rolled  to  the  proper 
thickness,  cut  with  the  disc  cutter,  if  it  was  of  circular 
form,  and  then  shaped  over  the  mould  and  the  edge 
notched  with  the  coggle,  if  notching  w^as  to  be  done. 
The  pieces  were  then  set  away  to  dry.  When  the  drying 
process  was  sufficiently  advanced  the  decoration  was 
applied. 

In  the  slip-traced  or  slip-painted  ware,  the  slip  or 
liquid  clay  of  about  the  consistency  of  batter  or  thick 
cream  was  trickled  from  the  slip  cup  or  quill  box 
through  one  or  more  quills  over  the  surface  of  the  un- 
burned  ware  when  it  had  partially  dried.  When  the 
slip  itself  had  become  dry  enough  to  get  set  it  was  some- 
times pressed  or  beaten  into  the  still  plastic  surface  of 
the  plate  or  platter.  At  other  times  the  design  was 
allowed  to  stand  out  in  low  relief.    The  slip  was  gen- 


224        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

erally  of  a  lighter  colour  than  the  coarse  clay  under- 
lyiug  it.  Indeed,  the  slip  was  almost  always  cream 
coloured  or  nearly  white,  while  the  body  of  the  pottery 
was  a  dark  orange  or  red.  Occasionally  the  scheme 
was  reversed  and  a  design  in  red  slip  was  traced  on  a 
cream-coloured  ground. 

In  making  the  sgraffito  ware,  the  red  body  of  the 
pottery  was  entirely  covered  with  a  coating  or  engohe 
of  the  cream-coloured  slip  and,  when  this  had  sufficiently 
dried,  the  decorative  designs  were  incised  or  etched 
upon  it  with  a  sharp-pointed  stick.  This  method  of 
decoration  admitted  of  greater  elaboration  of  design 
and  far  more  accuracy  and  nicety  of  execution  than  the 
former  method  by  Avhich  the  design  had  to  be  applied 
by  tracing  lines  with  a  thick,  flowing  liquid  that  re- 
quired no  little  dexterity  to  regulate. 

Ordinarily  the  slip-decorated  ware,  whether  slip 
traced  or  done  by  the  sgraffito  process,  was  subjected  to 
only  one  firing.  In  the  case  of  the  more  elaborate 
pieces,  however,  two  firings  were  sometimes  given. 

The  glazing  mixture  was  poured  into  hollow-ware 
that  was  to  be  glazed  only  on  the  inside ;  the  vessel  was 
then  whirled  rapidly  round  and  round  until  the  entire 
inner  surface  was  thoroughly  covered  and  the  residue 
of  the  glaze  was  emptied  out.  Vessels  to  be  glazed  both 
inside  and  outside  were  dipped  in  the  glazing  mixture. 
The  glaze  was  painted  upon  the  upper  surface  of  pie 
plates,  platters,  dishes,  and  other  flat  or  semi-concave 
articles  with  a  brush. 

In  the  process  of  firing,  the  glazing  mixture  ''be- 
came a  yellowish,  translucent  glass."  To  darken  the 
glaze,  manganese  was  added  in  various  quantities,  ac- 
cording to  the  depth  of  tone  desired,  a  black  being 


SLIP-DECORATED  POTTERY  225 

ultimately  attainable  by  using  enough  manganese. 
When  a  greenish  tinge  was  required,  verdigris  was 
added  to  the  ordinary  glazing  mixture,  previously  de- 
scribed, instead  of  manganese.  To  produce  a  mottled 
effect,  verdigris  was  occasionally  dabbed  on  the  glaze 
in  spots  and  allowed  to  melt  into  the  glaze  in  the  heat 
of  the  kiln.  In  a  few  instances,  glaze  of  a  chocolate- 
brown  hue  has  been  found.  This  variet^^  however,  is 
very  unusual  and  was  obtained  by  the  use  of  manganese. 
On  some  of  the  more  elaborate  pieces  one  occasionally 
finds  either  slips  or  glazes  coloured  blue,  dark  red,  dark 
brown,  olive,  yellow,  and  other  hues,  so  that  it  is  plain 
that  the  chromatic  possibilities  were  not  necessarily 
restricted  to  narrow  limits,  though,  as  a  rule,  the  potters 
stuck  to  the  simpler  schemes,  and  it  was  only  the  more 
ambitious  who  strove,  and  that  in  exceptional  instances, 
to  achieve  a  more  varied  polychrome  effect.  Confining 
themselves  to  their  red,  white,  and  green,  or  simply  red 
and  white,  it  is  remarkable  how  much  variety  they  suc- 
ceeded in  getting.  From  the  nature  of  conditions,  a 
greater  variety  of  colour  was  possible  in  srjraffito  ware 
than  in  slip-traced  pottery. 

After  the  glaze  was  put  on,  the  pieces  were  set  away 
to  dry  and  wait  until  there  were  enough  to  fill  the  kiln. 
The  firing  process  generally  took  about  a  day  and  a 
half.  The  kiln  was  then  sealed  and  allowed  to  remain 
so  for  about  a  week,  by  the  end  of  which  time  it  had 
cooled  off  sufficiently  so  that  the  ware  could  be  removed. 

ARTICLES  MADE 

Although  platters,  pie  plates,  jars  or  crocks,  and 
cooking  pots  seem  to  have  been  the  most  numerous 
articles  manufactured  by  the  Pennsylvania  German 

16 


X 


226        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

potters,  many  other  pieces  also  were  produced  by  these 
farmer  craftsmen.  The  common  commercial  form  of 
pie  plate  was  a  concave,  shallow  disc  with  a  notched 
or  cogg'led  edge,  and  the  decoration  usually  consisted 
of  parallel  waving  lines  (Fig.  1,  K).  More  elaborately 
decorated  pie  plates,  however,  were  by  no  means  un- 
common. The  plates  and  the  platters  were  generally 
round,  either  with  or  without  a  broad  rim,  but  oblong 


Fig.  2.    Green  Glaze  Jar,  Vickers'  Pottery,  Downingtown,  Pennsylvania. 
John  T.  Morris  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

and  oval  shapes  also  occurred,  and  sometimes  fluted 
ovals.  Jars  or  crocks  and  cooking  pots  were  of  various 
shapes  and  sizes,  but,  in  most  cases,  followed  the 
ordinary  familiar  type  still  to  be  seen  in  the  farmhouse 
kitchens  of  the  Middle  States.  The  cooking  pots  were 
made  both  with  and  ^vithout  lids. 

'Besides  the  articles  of  most  common  manufacture 
just  enumerated,  there  were  also  deep  vegetable  dishes, 
sometimes  circular,  sometimes  octagonal  or  hexagonal ; 


SLIP-DECORATED  POTTERY 


227 


meat  dishes;  fancy  dishes  or  trays;  cake  plates;  soup 
plates ;  shaving  basons,  like  soup  plates,  with  a  curved 
piece  cut  out  of  the  rim  to  fit  the  neck;  shaving  cups; 
spherical  or  cylindrical  jars,  usually  with  lids  and 
either  with  (Fig.  2)  or  without  handles;  honey  jars; 
tobacco  jars  (Fig.  3,  B) ;  apple-butter  pots ;  bowls ;  cake 
and  jelly  moulds;  decorative  flower-pots;  jugs  for 
vinegar  and  molasses;  mugs  or  measures,  either 
straight  sided  with  one  handle   (Fig.  3,  A)    or  else 


Fig.  3.  A,  Sgraffito  Mug,  Eastern  Pennsylvania.  John  T.  Morris  Collection,  Penn- 
sylvania Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art.  B,  Tobacco  Jar,  red  ground  with 
cream-coloured  and  black  slip  decoration;  c.  1830. 

Courtesy  of  Dr.  Edwin  AtLee  Barber. 

tumbler  shaped,  flaring  towards  the  top,  without 
handle ;  flower  holders  or  vases  of  different  shapes  more 
or  less  fanciful ;  pitchers  large  and  small ;  tea  canisters ; 
cotfee-pots;  sugar  bowls;  cream  pitchers;  ink  stands; 
sand  shakers  and  toys  in  the  form  of  birds,  animals, 
whistles,  and  miniature  eating  and  drinking  vessels. 
These  pieces  of  domestic  utility  were  made  by  the 
farmer  potters  from  about  1720  to  about  1850. 

The  slip-ware  was  of  two  sorts,  commercial  or  com- 
mon, which  was  produced  in  large  quantities ;  and  the 


228       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

finer  articles,  elaborately  decorated,  that  were  made  in 
fulfillment  of  special  orders  or  for  presentation  pieces, 
and,  for  that  reason,  cannot  be  said  to  have  ever  had 
any  strictly  commercial  value.  In  the  distinctly  dec- 
orative slip-traced  ware,  not  intended  for  constant  hard 
usage,  the  design  Avas  often  allowed  to  remain  in  slight 
reUef .  On  the  slip-traced  ware  of  simpler  design,  meant 
for  regTilar  daily  wear  and  tear,  the  figure  was  beaten 
or  pressed  into  the  surface  of  the  plate  or  platter,  or 
whatever  the  article  might  be,  while  it  was  still ' '  green, ' ' 
or  not  thoroughly  dry  before  glazing  and  firing,  so 
that  when  glazed  there  might  be  no  roughness  to  chip 
or  wear  through.  The  sgraffito  ware  almost  always 
bore  more  or  less  elaborate  decoration,  but,  as  the  glaze 
filled  all  depressions,  there  were  no  conspicuously 
uneven  places  to  wear  through. 

DECORATIVE  METHODS  AND  MOTIFS 

'Besides  the  processes  of  slip  tracing  and  sgraffito 
decorating  ordinarily  employed  by  the  potters,  there 
were  several  other  methods  of  ornamentation  to  which 
they  now  and  then  resorted.  One  of  these  was  a  transfer 
process;  the  other  was  a  kind  of  embossing  or  relief 
work  obtained  by  moulding.  In  the  transfer  process  a 
leaf  was  laid  on  the  body  to  be  decorated,  an  engohe  of 
white  slip  was  spread  over  the  rest  of  the  surface,  and 
then  the  leaf  was  removed,  leaving  its  shape  silhouetted 
in  the  surrounding  coat  of  slip.  For  the  embossed  or 
raised  decoration,  the  design  to  be  reproduced  was  cut 
into  the  surface  of  the  mould  over  which  the  dish  was 
shaped.  The  mould  being  withdrawn,  the  raised  dec- 
oration was  left  standing  out  from  the  surface  in  strong 
relief.    The  whole  was  then  glazed  and  fired. 


SLIP-DECORATED  POTTERY  229 

The  motifs  chosen  for  the  decorative  treatment  of 
the  slip-ware  were  of  the  most  varied  descriijtion,  rang- 
ing from  extremely  simple  conventional  floral  subjects 
to  the  human  figure.     Indeed,  on  the  cheaper  sort  of 
pottery  which  was  turned  out  in  large  quantities,  the 
decoration  often  consisted  of  merely  a  succession  of 
wavy  parallel  lines,  as  previously  noted,  traced  with  a 
slip  cup  that  had  from  two  to  seven  quills  side  by  side. 
In  the  embellishment  of  the  more  ambitious  pieces,  it  is 
often  quite  possible  to  recognise  easily  the  flowers  and 
fruits  and  leaves  or  the  birds  and  animals  with  which 
the  old  potters  wrought  their  decorative  schemes ;  then, 
again,  the  subjects  have  been  so  conventionalised  or  so 
crudely  treated  that  identification  is  altogether  out  of 
the  question.    A  bird,  it  may  be,  is  ''no  particular  kind 
of  a  bird,"  but  just  a  nondescript  fowl  that  might 
equally  well  be  taken  for  a  parrot,  a  hen,  or  a  peacock. 
Sometimes  the  birds  or  animals  are  strongly  suggestive 
of  the   composite   and   impossible   creatures   one   en- 
counters in  heraldry  or  ancient  mythology.    In  almost 
all  cases,  however,  let  the  treatment  be  as  crude  as  it 
may,  the  decorative  effect  is  distinctly  interesting,  if 
not  really  good.    For  the  sake  of  convenience  it  will  be 
well  to  classify  the  most  frequently  used  motifs  under 
the  general  heads  of  Floivers,  Fruits,  Birds,  Animals, 
Human  Figures,  Miscellaneous  Devices  and  Inscrip- 
tions, or  Initials  and  Dates. 

Flowers. — The  Tulip.  Among  the  flowers  chosen 
by  the  Pennsylvania  German  potters  for  the  decoration 
of  their  ware,  the  tulip  was  easily  first  in  point  of  popu- 
larity. It  was  so  universal  a  favourite  and  its  employ- 
ment was  so  prevalent,  during  the  whole  period  of 
manufacture,  apparently  being  esteemed  beyond  all 


230        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

other  motifs  taken  together,  that  the  pottery  made  by 
the  German  colonists  is  often  spoken  of  as  "Tulip 
Ware."  So  beloved  was  the  tulip  by  these  early  Ger- 
man settlers  in  America,  indeed,  that  they  habitually 
l)ourtrayed  it  in  every  conceivable  place  and  under 
every  conceivable  form,  either  natural  or  convention- 
alised. They  cast  it  in  their  iron  stove  plates,  they 
painted  it  on  the  dower  chests  of  their  brides,  they 
worked  it  on  their  samplers,  they  illuminated  it  on  their 
Vorschriften,  they  carved  it  on  the  date-stones  of  their 
houses  along  with  the  initials  of  the  goodman  and  his 
spouse,  and,  finally,  they  chiselled  it  on  the  headstones 
of  their  graves  when  they  were  gathered  to  their  fathers. 
Besides  all  this,  the  early  colonists  cultivated  the  bulb 
most  extensively.  It  could  scarcely  have  had  greater 
veneration  in  Holland  in  the  days  of  Tulipomania. 
Some  mystic  symbolism  seems  to  have  attached  to  this 
prevalent  use  of  the  tulip  motif — perhaps,  like  the  old 
Persians,  the  "Pennsylvania  Dutch"  associated  it  with 
the  ideas  of  life,  love,  and  immortality.  At  any  rate,  it 
lent  itself  admirably  to  decorative  treatment  in  the 
hands  of  unskilled  draughtsmen,  and  is  by  far  the  most 
successful  of  all  the  subjects  they  attempted.  Indeed, 
the  plates,  platters,  jars,  and  other  articles  decorated 
with  the  tulip  design  often  possess  much  genuine  artistic 
merit  and  charm,  whereas  many  of  the  other  designs 
appeal  to  us  merely  by  their  rugged  vigour  in  both  con- 
ceiDtion  and  execution  or  by  their  naive  grotesquerie. 

The  Fuchsia.  Next  to  the  tulip  in  popular  favour  as 
a  motif  for  decoration  came  the  fuchsia.  Like  the  tulip, 
it  lent  itself  convenientlv  to  conventional  treatment  or, 
if  preferred,  to  a  semi-naturalistic  representation. 
"One  of  the  striking  characteristics  of  the  German 


OCTAGONAL  DISH  WITH  MOULDED  RELIEF  DECORATION. 

PENNSYLVANIA  GERMAN,    1794 

John  T.  Morris  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


SLIP  DKCOHATKI)   I'll:   l'l,ATi:.,>,  I  iivM  lllK   \  K  KLKS  POTTERY,    CHESTER 

COUNTY,  PENNSYLVANIA.    DISH  MOULD 

Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  .^rt 


SLIP-DECORATED  POTTERY  231 

people  in  Pennsylvania,  which  has  clung  to  them 
through  all  the  years  that  have  elapsed  since  their  an- 
cestors left  the  fatherland,  is  their  love  for  flowers." 
Historians  tell  us  that  the  people  in  the  Rhine  country 
take  an  especial  delight  in  flowers,  and  that  "nowhere 
is  this  trait  so  universal  as  in  the  Palatinate,  along  the 
left  side  of  the  river,"  the  district  from  which  so  many 
of  the  Pennsylvania  German  colonists  migrated.  The 
fuchsia  was  a  familiar  and  much-esteemed  flower  in  the 
gardens  of  the  farmhouses,  and  its  almost  invariable 
presence  there  is  probably  to  be  accounted  for  in  part 
by  the  fact  that  ''the  fuchsia  in  Germany  has  long  been 
regarded  as  sacred,  since  it  is  one  of  the  first  signs  of 
the  returning  life  of  spring." 

The  Forget-me-not.  Sometimes  in  connexion  with 
roses,  sometimes  by  itself,  the  forget-me-not  appears 
as  a  decoration  on  slip-traced  or  sgraffito  pottery.  Its 
clearly  defined  outline  invited  depiction.  Sentiment, 
also,  dictated  its  use,  especially  on  pieces  intended  for 
presentation.  It  was  a  traditional  subject,  too,  and 
often  appears  as  a  motif  on  some  of  the  old  pottery 
made  in  Germany. 

Other  Flowers.  The  rose,  the  lily  of  the  valley,  the 
Persian  pink,  and  other  blossoms  also  were  used  by  the 
potters  to  embellish  their  handiwork.  While,  in  some 
instances,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  tell  what  the  botanic 
affinities  of  the  blossom  represented  may  be,  the  indica- 
tions are  usually  plain  enough  for  identification.  In 
the  selection  of  floral  motifs,  the  craftsmen  were  guided 
not  only  by  personal  preference  or  the  readiness  with 
which  certain  species  lent  themselves  to  adaptation  for 
decorative  purposes,  but  also  by  a  regard  for  the  sym- 
bolism expressed  in  the  language  of  flowers — the  accom- 


232       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

paiiyiiig  inscriptions  on  many  pieces  prove  this — and 
by  the  promptings  of  traditional  attachment,  for  these 
simple  colonists,  under  an  oftentimes  uncouth  exterior, 
were,  after  all,  tender  sentimentalists,  rigorous  con- 
servatives, and  mystics  in  their  own  somewhat  clumsy 
and  bucolic  way  (Fig.  4). 

Fruits.  Apples  and  grapes  seem  to  have  been  the 
favourite  fruits  chosen  for  representation  on  the  slip- 
decorated  ware,  although  other  fruits  also  may  now 


Fio.  4.     A,  Dish,  cream,  green  and  black  slip  decoration.     By  John  Leidy,  Penn- 
sylvania, 1790.     B,  Sgraffito  Dish,  polychrome  glaze.  Eastern  Pennsylvania,  c.  1790. 

John  T.  Morris  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

and  then  be  found.  Fruit  motifs,  apparently,  were  not 
nearly  so  popular  as  some  other  subjects. 

Birds. — The  Turtledove.  Among  birds,  the  turtle- 
dove held  a  place  comparable  in  favour  to  that  of  the 
tulip  among  floral  motifs.  It  was  the  emblem  of  love 
and  conjugal  felicity,  and  its  recurrence  is  frequent  not 
only  on  the  sgraffito  decorated  plates,  platters,  and  jugs, 
but  also  in  other  decorative  work  wrought  by  the  Penn- 
sylvania Germans. 

The  Eagle.  The  eagle  appears  both  in  its  natural 
shape  and  in  the  traditional  double-headed  form  proper 


SLIP-DECORATED  POTTERY  233 

to  heraldic  representation.  As  a  natural  bird  it  was, 
perhaps,  indicative  of  patriotism  on  the  part  of  the 
potters  who  potted  after  the  king  of  birds  had  become 
a  national  emblem.  As  a  double-headed  creature  it  was 
reminiscent  of  the  devices  they  had  so  often  seen 
blasoned  in  the  land  of  their  origin  or  of  the  design  on 
some  treasured  heirloom  they  had  brought  with  them  to 
a  new  land. 

The  Peacock.  The  decorative  possibilities  sug- 
gested by  the  peacock  could  not  fail  to  impress  a  crafts- 
man considering  a  subject  of  design.  Furthermore,  the 
peacock  was  a  familiar  fowl  in  the  farmhouse  door- 
yards,  as  it  "was  raised  quite  extensively  in  the  Penn- 
svlvania  German  settlements,  as  elsewhere  in  the 
Eastern  States,  and  in  some  of  the  rural  districts  it 
was  looked  upon  as  a  weather  prophet,  its  discordant 
cry  being  supposed  to  indicate  the  approach  of  rain. 
Its  gorgeous  plumage  was  used  for  mantel  decoration, 
sometimes  being  placed  in  an  earthen  jar,  and  was  also 
made  into  pliant  brooms  to  be  waved  across  the  dining 
table  in  fly  time.  For  ordinary  purposes  brushes  made 
of  fringed  paper  were  in  common  use,  but  the  peacock 
broom  was  always  brought  forth  on  state  occasions." 

Other  Birds.  In  addition  to  the  birds  just  named, 
the  potters  made  more  or  less  use  of  the  following  in 
their  decoration:  the  duck,  the  drake,  the  swan,  the 
oriole,  the  parrot,  the  domestic  cock  (Fig.  5,  B)  and  hen, 
and  the  pelican  (Fig.  5,  A),  the  last  being  regarded  as 
emblematic  of  maternal  devotion. 

Animals.  Besides  the  deer,  the  horse,  and  the  rab- 
bit, which  seem  to  have  been  looked  upon  with  special 
favour  among  the  representatives  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, lions,  dogs,  and  other  four-footed  creatures  made 


234       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

their  appearance  from  time  to  time.  Although  the  draw- 
ing of  animals  was  never  so  successful  as  the  delinea- 
tion of  certain  flowers  and  a  few  of  the  birds,  the  repre- 
sentation was  not  infrequently  vigorous  and  spirited. 

Human  Figukes.  When  it  came  to  tracing  the 
"human  form  divine,"  the  "Pennsylvania  Dutch"  pot- 
ter can  scarcely  be  reckoned  a  skillful  limner.  Most 
of  his  efforts  in  that  direction  are  frankly  grotesque, 
but  refreshing,  nevertheless,  if  we  take  them  simply  for 
what  they  are  worth  and  do  not  expect  too  much.    On 


B 


Fig.  5.  A,  Deep  flaring  Dish,  red  ground  with  slip  decoration.  Eastern  Pennsyl- 
vania c.  1830.  B,  Deep  Dish  with  flaring  rim.  Decorations  in  cream  slip  with  toucues 
of  green  glaze.    Probably  by  John  Leidy,  Eastern  Pennsylvania,  c.   1796. 

John  T.  Morris  Collection.     Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

a  plate  showing  a  wedding  scene  the  bride  and  groom 
are  evidently  people  of  very  positive  mould.  If  physi- 
ognomy be  any  criterion,  one  might  reasonably  suspect 
the  lady  of  having  a  truculent  disposition  and  a  shrew- 
ish temper.  The  wasp-like  w^aists  of  the  damsels  on 
the  Mischianza  plate  excite  our  pity,  but,  notwithstand- 
ing the  physical  limitations  of  their  tenuity,  they  seem 
to  be  having  such  an  agreeable  time  treading  the  minuet 
with  their  gallant  British  partners  that  perhaps  our 
compassion  is  not  needed.    At  any  rate,  whatever  their 


SLIP-DECORATED  POTTERY  235 

defects  from  an  artistic  point  of  view,  they  are  interest- 
ing from  historical  considerations,  for  they  throw 
many  a  valuable  sideliglit  on  the  dress  and  manners  of 
the  time. 

Miscellaneous  Devices.  The  slip-ware  decorators 
now  and  again  had  recourse  to  miscellaneous  devices 
not  included  in  any  of  the  foregoing  classifications. 
Among  these  may  be  found  houses,  trees,  hearts, 
swords,  stars,  fish,  serpents,  herring-bone  patterns,  and 
serpentine  scrolls. 

Inscriptions.  For  marginal  use  or  incorporation  in 
the  body  of  the  decoration,  inscriptions,  dates,  names, 
and  initial  letters  were  of  frequent  occurrence.  Moral 
admonitions,  mottoes,  proverbs,  expressions  of  affec- 
tionate regard,  and  indications  of  ownership  are  all  to 
be  found,  and  sometimes  the  name  of  the  maker  occupies 
a  conspicuous  place.  The  snatches  of  verse  and  the 
couplets  thus  employed  are  often  exceedingly  quaint, 
and,  by  this  means,  one  occasionally  finds  an  allusion 
to  some  peculiar  local  custom  or  gets  an  insight  into 
an  interesting  bit  of  folk-lore.  The  general  tone  may 
be  judged  by  the  following  specimens : 

To  paint  flowtTs  is  common, 

But  God  alone  is  able  to  give  fragrance. 

Rather  would  I  single  live 
Than  the  wife  the  breeches  give. 

A  pipe  of  tobacco  does  a  man  as  much  good 
As  tbougli  he  spends  his  money  with  the  gills. 

I  cook  what  I  can, 

If  my  sow  will  not  eat,  my  husband  will. 

The  last  was  probably  in  allusion  to  an  old  German  say- 
ing that  "lie  is  a  poor  farmer  because  he  eats  all  the 
good  things  himself  and  does  not  give  his  pig  any." 


230        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Nearly  all  of  these  inscriptions  are  in  the  ' '  Pennsyl- 
vania Dutch"  dialect.  The  lettering  is  generally  vig- 
orous and  possessed  of  a  certain  rude  grace  which 
accords  well  with  the  naivete  of  the  sentiments  ex- 
pressed. Sometimes  the  marginal  inscriptions  on  plates 
were  in  the  nature  of  a  grace,  and  filled  a  useful  purpose 
in  supplying  occasional  reminders  of  moral  principles 
and  food  for  reflection  while  the  plate  itself  supplied 
food  for  the  body.  It  must  be  remembered,  too,  that 
among  these  people  there  was  little  popular  reading 
matter,  so  that  the  inscriptions,  therefore,  ministered 
to  another  want. 

The  potters,  in  some  cases,  put  small  marks  or  de- 
vices on  their  work  to  indicate  authorship,  instead  of 
signing  the  pieces  with  their  names. 

In  forming  our  estimate  of  the  intrinsic  merits  of 
Pennsylvania  German  slip-decorated  pottery  it  is  not, 
of  course,  fair  to  apply  the  tests  that  we  should 
ordinarily  apply  to  work  of  a  more  finished  character. 
It  was  a  spontaneous  expression  of  folk-art  among  a 
crude  people,  and  we  must  consider  all  the  attendant 
circumstances  of  its  production.  The  conception  is  full 
of  vitality,  and  the  depiction  energetic  and  straight- 
forAvard.  The  artists  were  not  skillful,  but  they  were 
sincere,  and  their  honest  efforts  should  command  our 
respect,  because  they  w^ere  evidently  doing  the  best  they 
knew  how.  Above  all,  it  was  appropriate,  for  it  suited 
the  conditions  of  the  people  by  whom  and  for  whom  it 
was  made.  Notwithstanding  all  the  imperfections  in 
drawing,  notwithstanding  the  frequent  crudity  of 
colour,  notwithstanding  the  general  bizarrerie  of  many 
of  the  pieces,  they  all  possess  a  decorative  charm  that 
compels  our  interest,  if  not  our  admiration.    Indeed,  in 


SLIP-DECORATED  POTTERY  237 

the  light  of  recent  post-Impressionistic  inspiration,  it 
seems  hard  to  deny  the  old  potters  some  artistic  rating. 
Surely  the  habitual  deficiency  of  drawing,  the  painfully 
jimp  waists  of  the  women,  the  misshapen  anatomy  of 
the  men,  the  exaggerations  and  distortions  in  the  pour- 
trayal  of  birds,  beasts,  and  flowers,  are  all  very  like  the 
earmarks  of  draughtsmanship  that  receive  the  approval 
of  our  most  modern  art  mentors.  There  is  this  differ- 
ence, ho^vever.  Xone  of  the  old  potters  were  posing, 
and  all  of  them  were  unquestionably  sincere. 

The  old  potteries  are  now  all  idle  or  have  fallen  into 
ruin.  They  have  not  been  operated  since  about  1850. 
We  cannot  help  feeling  some  regret  that  this  craft  is  no 
longer  practised,  and  it  is  quite  possible  to  understand 
the  inspiration  that  prompted  English  Colonial  potters 
living  near  the  Germans  to  imitate  their  ware.  Apart 
from  the  purposes  of  the  collector,  the  present  value  of 
the  pottery  is  twofold.  By  its  ow^n  visible  evidence  we 
can  learn  much  of  the  people  who  made  it,  and,  more 
important  still,  it  is  capable  of  supplying  a  stimulus  to 
the  craftsman  of  to-day.  It  can  never  be  exactly  dupli- 
cated, nor  is  it  desirable  that  it  should  be,  but  the 
processes  by  which  it  was  made  can  be  used  again  and 
with  as  great  success. 

The  collector  never  knows  when  or  where  he  may 
chance  upon  a  piece  of  slip-ware  and,  incidentally,  a 
discovery  regarding  manners  and  methods.  If  one 
really  wishes  to  find  novel  pieces  he  must  be  constantly 
on  the  lookout  in  every  imaginable  place,  just  as  he 
would  for  any  other  kind  of  pottery  or  porcelain,  and 
he  must  be  willing  to  poke  into  all  sorts  of  unpromising 
nooks  and  corners.  One  can  never  tell  where  the 
treasure  may  lie.    The  rural  districts  of  Pennsylvania, 


238       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

however,  and  the  cities  not  too  far  removed  from  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  State  are  likely  to  be  the  most 
fruitful  hunting  ground.  In  any  of  these  places  it  is 
worth  while  to  nose  about  any  antique  shop  or  the 
habitat  of  any  junk  dealer. 

The  finest  collection  of  slip-ware  in  any  one  place  is 
to  be  seen  at  Memorial  Hall,  in  Fairmount  Park,  Phila- 
delphia, a  part  of  the  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School 
of  Industrial  Art.  There  is  also  a  collection  at  Man- 
heim,  Pennsylvania. 

STONEWARE 

It  would  be  unjust  to  the  eighteenth  century  crafts- 
men to  conclude  a  chapter  on  early  pottery  without  some 
allusion  to  the  grey  or  grey-brown  stoneware  with 
blue  decorations.  Such  ware,  consisting  chiefly  of 
pitchers,  mugs,  butter  crocks  and  pickle  jars,  w^as  made 
in  several  places  and,  in  one  or  two  instances — notably 
at  Haddonfield  in  West  Jersey — has  been  manufactured 
without  interruption  to  the  present  day,  the  same  forms 
and  methods  of  decoration  being  employed  without 
change. 

The  shapes  of  these  vessels  w^ere  good  and  the 
colour  scheme — deep  blue  decorations  in  a  grey  or 
grey-brown  ground — pleasing.  Simple  floral  devices 
were  either  painted  on  a  flat  surface  or  else  blue  colour- 
ing was  run  into  shallow  incised  patterns,  after  which 
the  glaze  w^as  applied.  Sometimes  the  whole  surface 
was  covered  with  incised  ornament  and  not  coloured. 


CHAPTER  IX 

DECORATIVE  PAINTING  ON  HOUSEHOLD 

GEAR 

ExVRLY  American  decorative  painting  has  far 
more  than  a  purely  antiquarian  interest  for  us 
to-day.  The  various  decorative  objects  wrought 
by  the  craftsmen  and  craftswomen  of  Colonial  and  post- 
Colonial  periods,  and  the  articles  of  common  household 
utility,  to  which  they  applied  some  sort  of  painted  orna- 
mentation, have  aroused  in  recent  years  a  lively  in- 
terest on  the  part  of  both  collectors  and  professional 
decorators  and  have  supplied  abundant  inspiration  and 
patterns  for  modern  emulation.  Collectors  esteem 
them  for  their  intrinsic  merits,  for  the  gratification  of 
some  individual  fancy,  for  some  peculiarity  of  historical 
consideration  attaching  to  them  or  the  like.  Decorators 
have  recognised  their  value  for  purposes  of  a  kind  of 
embellishment,  especially  effective  in  certain  appro- 
jDriate  settings,  and  when  they  cannot  come  by  originals 
they  are  not  slow  to  demand  reproductions,  so  that  the 
craftsworker  has  found  much  employment  in  this  fruit- 
ful traditional  field.  The  private  purchaser,  too,  has 
not  been  slow  to  see  the  merits  of  this  old  work  and  turn 
it  to  good  account. 

Although  the  decorative  painting  representing  the 
handiwork  of  long-past  generations  has  not  been  made 
the  definite  object  of  the  collector's  energies  in  a  com- 
prehensive way,  so  far  as  the  writers  are  aware — it 
really  spreads  over  almost  too  wide  a  range  to  fit  con- 
veniently into  the  collecting  scheme  of  any  one  in- 

239 


240        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

dividual — its  appeal  has  proved  so  compelling,  and  we 
lind  the  application  of  the  decorative  resources  it  offers 
made  in  such  various  and  ingenious  ways,  either  by  the 
use  of  original  "finds"  made  at  antique  shops  or  at  the 
junk  dealer's,  by  reproductions  or  by  adaptations  that 
adhere  pretty  faithfully  to  the  spirit  of  their  prototypes 
in  colour  and  design,  that  it  deserves  systematic  and 
extended  attention  from  those  who  would  be  fully  cog- 
nisant of  the  wealth  of  our  decorative  heritage. 

Abundant  examples  of  early  decorative  painting  are 
to  be  found  on  the  usual  pieces  of  household  furniture, 
especially  chests,  cupboards,  chairs,  and  tables,  and  also 
upon  mirror  tops,  clock  faces,  the  doors  of  bracket  and 
hanging  clocks,  trays,  small  boxes,  bellows,  snuff-boxes 
and  band-boxes,  and  many  other  small  odds  and  ends. 
First  in  order  we  shall  consider  the  larger  pieces  of 
furniture. 

FURNITURE 

We  are  altogether  too  apt  to  take  it  for  granted,  that 
our  Colonial  forebears  depended  wholly  upon  the  Old 
World  for  such  things  as  were  thence  sent  overseas  to 
them  for  the  gratification  of  any  taste  for  the  amenities 
of  existence  that  they  might  have  leisure  and  means  to 
entertain  or  cultivate.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  were 
not  so  busy  subduing  the  wilderness  and  battling  with 
adverse  conditions  that  they  had  no  time  to  devote  to 
anything  not  savouring  of  severely  practical  utility. 

One  of  the  things  for  which  the  desire  seized  them 
was  some  sort  of  decoration  for  their  simpler  and  often 
home-made  furniture,  much  of  it  constructed  of  cheap, 
common,  and  easily  worked  wood  of  whatever  kind 
chance  brought  readiest  to  hand.  With  characteristic 
resourcefulness,  they  supplied  the  want  themselves, 


DECORATIVE  PAINTING  241 

depending  for  inspiration  upon  the  traditions  they 
had  brought  with  them,  as  a  part  of  their  heritage, 
from  the  lands  whence  they  were  sprung.  The  form 
of  decoration  they  applied  to  their  plainer  furniture 
was  painting,  and  we  find  furniture  painting  prac- 
tised from  New  England  to  the  Southern  Colonies. 
Its  character  differed  widely  in  different  localities 
and  was  determined  in  the  several  regions  by  the 
several  types  of  tradition  to  which  those  who  prac- 
tised it  had  fallen  heir.  Hence  we  fiind  one  style, 
derived  from  English  tradition,  in  New  England; 
another  style,  derived  from  Dutch  tradition,  in  New 
York  and  the  Dutch  parts  of  Long  Island  and  Northern 
New  Jersey;  while,  in  Pennsylvania,  there  flourished 
among  the  Pennsylvania  Germans  still  a  third  style, 
derived  from  the  peasant  traditions  of  Bavaria  and  the 
neighbouring  German  principalities.  Pennsylvania 
also  exhibited  examples  of  English  tradition  among  the 
English  colonists,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the 
Southern  Colonies. 

The  want  of  some  sort  of  decoration  was  perfectly 
natural.  Of  necessity,  the  home-made  furniture,  chest, 
cupboard,  or  what  you  will,  was  severely  simple  in 
form  and  line  and  evidenced  the  need  of  something  to 
relieve  its  austerity  and  baldness  of  aspect.  Paint 
afforded  the  easiest  means  of  supplying  the  obvious 
need,  and  paint  was  the  first  to  suggest  itself.  It  min- 
istered to  native  love  of  colour.  Besides,  paint  was  the 
logical  preservative  of  the  wood.  But,  even  at  the  very 
beginning,  paint  was  not  regarded  from  the  merely 
utilitarian  point  of  ^new,  for  in  some  of  the  earliest 
instances  it  was  applied  to  only  a  part  of  the  surface 
and  in  a  decorative  design.    This  method  of  embellish- 

16 


242       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

ment  was  customarily  employed  where  the  object  to  be 
decorated  was  made  of  oak  or  some  other  wood  whose 
grain  and  colour  had  a  decorative  value  in  themselves. 

New  England,  The  first  examples  of  American 
Colonial  furniture  painting  are  to  be  found,  of  course,  in 
New  England.  There  chests,  hutches,  small  boxes,  and 
the  like  were  not  infrequently  adorned  with  simple 
floriated  or  foliated  designs,  more  or  less  conventional, 
applied  on  a  background  of  colour  or  upon  the  natural 
wood.  Sometimes  the  decoration  consisted  merely  of 
scrolls  and  waving  lines.  Nearly  all  the  painting  of 
this  sort  is  of  very  early  date,  and  most  of  the  pieces  in 
which  it  is  found  belong  to  the  seventeenth  century. 

The  mouldings  on  many  seventeenth-  and  some  early 
eighteenth-century  New  England-made  chests  and  cup- 
boards were  of  pine  or  some  other  soft  wood,  although 
the  rest  of  the  piece  may  have  been  of  oak.  One  of  the 
commonest  forms  of  colour  decoration  was  to  paint  or 
stain  these  mouldings  red,  in  imitation  of  cedar  or 
rosetta-wood.  Likewise,  the  turned  and  applied  orna- 
ments for  seventeenth-century  New  England  oak  cab- 
inet work,^  such  as  round  or  oval  bosses  and  split 
balusters,  spindles,  or  maces,  were  frequently  made  of 
pine,  or  of  some  soft  wood  that  could  be  easily  worked, 
and  then  painted  black  to  look  like  ebony.  Sometimes, 
however,  even  hardwood  mouldings  were  painted  or 
stained. 

It  was  a  common  practice  to  stain  parts  of  cabinet 
work  instead  of  using  paint,  but,  as  the  chromatic  effect 
was  obtained  in  practically  the  same  way,  the  process 
is  to  be  included  under  the  head  of  painting.    A  more 

*v.  "The  Practical  Book  of  Period  Furniture";  Eberlein  and 
McClure. 


DITCH   NEW  YORK   PAINTED  KAS 

HADI.EY  CHEST,  WITH  PAINTED  GOUGED  GKOIND 

Courtesy  of  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York  City 


DECORATIVE  PAINTING  243 

extensive  use  of  staining  than  that  already  alluded  to, 
in  the  case  of  mouldings,  is  to  be  found  on  some  of  the 
"Hadley"  chests — so  called  from  the  peculiar  form  of 
carved  decoration  found  on  many  chests  and  boxes 
made  in  the  vicinity  of  Hadley,  Massachusetts — where 
rails,  stiles,  and  panels  are  all  given  the  adornment  of 
colour,  in  addition  to  carving,  and  considerable  variety 
is  attained  by  the  use  of  two  or  three  hues,  such  as  red, 
mulberry,  and  black  or  red,  brown,  and  black.  Often- 
times, also,  on  pieces  of  furniture  other  than  chests, 
or  on  pieces  with  a  device  quite  different  from  the 
Hadley  pattern,  where  the  ornament  consisted  of  flat 
carving  in  low  relief,  the  design  was  strongly  accentu- 
ated by  the  application  of  colour  to  the  background. 

Occasionally  panels  were  painted  with  stripes. 
Then,  again,  the  flat  surfaces  of  panels  or  stiles  of 
chests,  or  other  articles  of  cabinet  work,  are  sometimes 
found  ornamented  with  painted  line  or  dot  designs  in 
geometrical  or  floral  patterns,  and,  in  some  cases,  the 
tulip  motif  appears  in  this  form,  which  circumstance 
would  seem  to  point  to  a  strain  of  Dutch  or  German 
influence  and  occasions  some  surprise,  as  one  scarcely 
expects  to  find  this  flower  painted — although  its  occur- 
rence elsewhere  on  carving  is  common  enough — outside 
of  the  Pennsylvania  German  sphere  of  inspiration. 
The  least  worthy  form  of  painted  decoration  was  where 
it  merely  simulated  panelling  or  some  other  decorative 
process. 

After  the  period  of  profuse  carving  had  passed,  the 
flat  drawer  fronts  of  chosts  of  drawers  and  highboys 
were  now  and  again  enlivened  with  painted  patterns 
of  flowers  and  leaves.  Doubtless  the  inspiration  for 
some  of  this  species  of  ornament  came  from  the  ja- 


244        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

panned  or  lacquered  pieces,  so  popular  in  England  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  and  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth.  Some  of  them,  of  course,  found 
their  way  to  America,  and  examples  are  not  wanting  of 
fairly  sucessful  attempts,  on  the  part  of  American 
craftsmen,  to  emulate  the  lacquer  work  of  contemporary 
British  manufacture.  In  England,  the  art  of  lacquering 
was  extensively  practised  by  amateurs,  with  varying 
degrees  of  success,  and  no  doubt  the  same  was  true  in 
America,  for  London  fashions  found  a  very  prompt 
echo  on  our  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and,  in  all  probability, 
a  copy  or  two  of  Stalker  and  Parker's  '^ Treatise  on 
Japanning  and  Varnishing, ' '  published  in  1688,  reached 
Colonial  readers.  The  execution  of  lacquer  work,  how- 
ever, was  not  extensively  undertaken,  and  outside  of 
New  England  few,  if  any,  serious  attempts  were  made 
in  that  direction.  Thus,  with  the  conclusion  of  the 
lacquer  episode,  we  reach  the  limit  of  furniture  paint- 
ing phases  peculiar  to  New  England.  Other  types  of 
painted  decoration  practised  there  were  shared  with 
other  parts  of  the  Colonies.  Before  quitting  the  con- 
sideration of  forms  of  decorative  furniture  painting 
peculiar  to  New  England,  however,  a  word  must  be 
added  anent  court  cupboards,  press  cupboards  or  wain- 
scot cupboards,  and  their  various  mobiliary  kin  and 
descendants,  which  seem  always  to  have  been  especially 
favourite  subjects  for  painted  decoration.  The  taste 
and  precedent  for  such  decoration  are,  in  all  likelihood, 
to  be  traced  through  England,  Flanders  and  Holland, 
and  finally  to  Germany,  where,  in  the  early  seventeenth 
century,  the  cabinet  makers,  inspired  by  the  elaborate 
and  multi-coloured  inlay  of  woods,  metals,  and  stones 
or  mosaic,  wrought  by  Italian  and  Spanish  artisans, 


DECORATIVE  PAINTING  245 

seem  to  have  achieved  brilliant  results  with  paint,  which 
offered  a  means  of  attaining,  at  little  expense,  little  skill 
and  infinitely  less  labour,  some  approximation  to  the 
interest  and  relief  of  design  and  colour  produced  by 
more  complex  decorative  processes.  In  this  connexion, 
in  his  book  on  the  furniture  of  Colonial  America,  Mr. 
Lockwood  calls  attention  to  the  frequent  use  of  paint 
to  enliven  the  mouldings,  cornices,  and  turned  orna- 
ments of  early  New  England  cupboards,  and  the  occa- 
sional presence  of  stain  or  paint  as  a  background  to  set 
off  carving.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  not  a  few 
of  the  early  cupboards  or  buffets  were  painted  wholly 
white,  or  in  some  colour,  and  picked  out  or  lined  with 
gold  enrichments.  This  was  particularly  apt  to  be  the 
case  when  the  cupboards  were  built  into  the  walls  or 
when  they  partook  of  architectural  features  in  their 
form  or  method  of  ornamentation.  The  insides  were 
usually  adorned  with  paint  and  gilding,  while  the  coved 
scallop  shells  that  generally  formed  the  arch  at  the 
top  especially  invited  such  decoration. 

New  Yokk,  Long  Island,  Northern  New  Jersey.  In 
Dutch  New  York,  and  the  Dutch  parts  of  Long  Island 
and  Northern  New  Jersey,  the  painting  of  chests, 
chairs,  stools,  cupboards,  and  other  articles  of  furniture 
was  commonly  practised.  Chests  in  the  Hudson  Valley 
were  rarely  made  of  oak,  as  in  New  England,  but  were 
customarily  constructed  of  pine  or  some  other  cheap 
wood  and  painted.  Many  pieces  w^ere  painted  a  solid 
colour  all  over,  while  the  grace  of  design  was  added 
here  and  there  as  a  relief.  The  great  kasses  or  cup- 
boards were  sometimes  made  of  black  walnut,  but,  for 
the  most  part,  were  of  pine  and  painted,  not  seldom 


246       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

with  elaborate  and  ample  decorative  bunches  of  fruits, 
flowers,  and  ribbons. 

Pennsylvania  German  Work.  One  of  the  most  in- 
teresting and  strongly  individual  manifestations  of 
furniture  painting  in  Colonial  America  was  that  prac- 
tised by  the  Germans  of  Pennsylvania,  to  whose  singu- 
arly  fertile  perpetuation  of  traditions,  transplanted 
from  their  fatherland,  allusion  has  previously  been 
made.  A  comparison  of  the  painted  chests  and  boxes 
to  be  found  by  roaming  about  in  out-of-the-way  corners 
of  the  counties  where  the  "Pennsylvania  Dutch"  chiefly 
settled  —  'Bucks,  Berks,  Montgomery,  Lancaster, 
Lehigh,  and  Northampton — discloses  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  the  painted  furniture  of  Bavaria,  character- 
istic specimens  of  which  are  preserved  in  the  National 
Museum  of  Munich.  While  the  colouring  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania chests  is  sometimes  more  subdued,  it  is  not 
universally  so,  and  there  is  a  close  likeness  shown  in 
the  method  of  combining  the  colours.  There  is  also  a 
remarkable  similarity  in  the  decorative  motifs  em- 
ployed— stiff,  crudely  drawn  flowers  and  fruits,  birds, 
and  decorative  bands.  Of  course,  in  the  choice  of  de- 
signs, the  "Pennsylvania  Dutch"  showed  a  local  predi- 
lection for  the  tulip,  which  they  never  failed  to  intro- 
duce in  every  possible  place,  from  tombstones  to  iron 
stove-plates  or  illuminated  baptismal  certificates.  Other 
motifs,  specifically  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  slip- 
decorated  pottery,  were  also  employed  in  their  fur- 
niture painting. 

Besides  the  conventional  decorative  panels  and 
bands  separating  them,  inscriptions  were  almost  in- 
variably used  as  an  additional  embellishment.  Some- 
times merely  the  initials  of  the  owner  or  owners  and 


DECORATIVE  PAINTING  247 

the  date  would  aiDpear.  Then,  again,  some  homely 
motto  in  German  text,  expressing  an  aspiration,  a 
religious  sentiment,  or  a  practical  bit  of  advice  in 
proverb  form,  would  be  employed  in  addition. 

The  articles  chosen  for  this  kind  of  chromatic  doc- 
oration  were  chests,  especially  the  so-called  dower 
chests,  which  the  bride  took  with  her,  filled  with  ample 
store  of  household  linen,  to  her  new  home,  and  the 
small  wooden  boxes,  often  of  oval  shape,  which  the 
groom  customarily  gave  to  the  bride  at  or  a  little  before 
the  time  of  the  wedding.  These  ' '  bride-boxes, ' '  as  they 
are  sometimes  called,  were  filled  with  linen,  laces,  rib- 
bons, and  other  small  finery  dear  to  the  feminine  heart, 
for  the  personal  use  and  adornment  of  the  bride. 
Whether  oval  or  round  in  shape — both  forms  were  com- 
mon— the  boxes  are  made  of  four  pieces  of  w^ood — two 
in  the  box  itself  and  two  in  the  cover.  The  bottom  and 
top  are  made  of  thin  pieces  of  white  pine  of  the  required 
shape.  The  sides  of  the  box  and  the  rim  of  the  top  are 
made  of  single  thin  and  pliable  strips  of  the  same  wood, 
long  enough  to  cover  slightly  more  than  the  circum- 
ference of  the  bottom  and  top  pieces  and  allow  enough 
to  lap  over.  Where  the  ends  lap,  they  are  pierced  and 
strongly  sewed  together  with  split  willow  writhes  or 
rattan,  in  much  the  same  way  that  the  caning  of  a  chair 
seat  is  bound.  The  top  and  bottom  pieces  are  fastened 
inside  these  bands  with  tacks  or  small  nails.  The  inside 
is  left  unpainted,  and  the  outside  is  coated  with  a  solid 
ground  colour — green,  red,  blue,  yellow,  or  bro^\^l,  as 
taste  dictated.  Upon  this  solid  colour  fanciful  decora- 
tions in  bright  hues  and  flat  treatment  were  lavished. 
Floral  designs  and  birds  were  the  favourite  motifs, 
although  representations  of  the  human  figure  and  in- 


248       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

scriptions  were  by  no  means  unusual.  The  human 
tig-ures  sometimes  present  a  valuable  commentary  on 
the  costumes  of  the  day.  As  in  most  of  the  German 
peasant  work,  tulips,  pinks,  fuchsias,  doves,  and  parrots 
supply  the  chief  themes  for  ornamentation,  although 
other  flowers,  birds,  and  animals  frequently  appear  as 
well.  The  execution  is  crude  and  the  colouring  often- 
times exceedingly  bizarre,  but  the  effect,  nevertheless, 
is,  in  the  main,  agreeable  and  harmonious  after  its 
fashion,  and  the  perpetuation  of  transplanted  folk  tra- 
ditions— practically  all  of  this  work  was  home-made 
and  may  l3e  said  to  have  been  home-decorated — is  made 
perfectly  obvious. 

Other  pieces  of  household  equipment  besides  chests 
and  boxes  were  also  painted,  although  the  greatest 
efforts  seem  to  have  been  lavished  in  the  direction  just 
indicated.  The  vivid  colours  of  these  painted  articles^ 
bright  greens,  reds,  blues,  and  yellows  were  the  fav- 
ourites— added  a  note  of  life  and  point  of  interest  in 
any  room  where  they  were  placed,  and  it  is  needless  to 
say  that  they  were  cherished  with  a  good  deal  of  pride 
and  satisfaction,  not  to  mention  sentiment.  It  is  really 
remarkable  to  see  how  much  variety  the  painters  some- 
times achieved  by  the  ingenious  combination  of  com- 
paratively few  colours. 

A  comparison  of  several  of  the  dower  chests  will 
show  how  closely  the  Pennsylvania  furniture  painters 
followed  the  spirit  and  tradition  of  the 'Old  World  in 
their  work.  One  chest,  to  which  we  shall  refer  for  this 
purpose,  is  an  exact  replica  of  a  bride  chest  in  the 
National  Museum  at  Munich,  the  other  was  picked  up 
at  a  country  sale  in  Bucks.  The  Bavarian  dower  chest 
has  a  cream-coloured  ground  in  which  the  bright-hued 


DECORATIVE  PAINTING  249 

flowers,  figures,  and  bands  stand  out  in  strong  relief. 
Tlie  front  of  the  chest  is  divided  into  three  panels  by- 
wide  yellow,  decorative  bands.  The  stiff  sprays  of 
flowers  and  leaves  in  the  side  panels,  springing  primly 
from  graceful  little  vases,  are  painted  in  strong  tones 
of  red,  green,  blue,  and  yellow,  while  the  bunch  of  four 
plums  with  leaves,  in  the  central  panel,  is  done  in  plum 
colour  and  green.  The  chequered  diaper-work  in  blue 
and  yellow,  at  the  bottom  of  the  plum  panel,  is  exceed- 
ingly effective.  The  letters  J.  V.  C.  A.,  in  the  lower 
corners  of  the  two  side  panels,  are  presumably  the 
initials  of  the  contracting  pair,  and  the  figures  1705 
doubtless  show  the  date  of  the  marriage.  The  panels 
at  the  ends  are  likewise  fully  decorated.  One  shows  a 
quaint  little  man,  fancifully  arrayed  in  mediaeval  cos- 
tume, leaning  on  a  staff  and  an  equally  quaint  little 
woman,  in  gown  of  the  same  period,  presenting  him 
with  a  nosegay.  The  other  end  has  simply  a  floral 
design. 

The  Pennsylvania  chest  is  likewise  divided  into 
three  panels  in  front.  The  body  of  the  chest  is  a  dull 
blue.  That  the  decoration  was  ''home  made"  may  be 
inferred  from  the  ruled  scratchings  and  carpenter's 
compass  marks  on  the  wood,  made  in  laying  off  the 
spaces  for  the  painted  embellishment.  The  ground- 
work of  the  panels  is  cream  coloured,  and  the  flowers, 
lettering,  and  figures  are  done  in  reds,  greens,  and  yel- 
lows that  were  once  brilliant  and  glowing,  but  are  now 
dulled  by  age  and  perhaps  a  degree  of  neglect  and 
exposure.  The  panels  at  the  ends  are  much  marred, 
and  the  design  is  incoherent  and  almost  obliterated. 
Quite  enough  is  visible,  however,  in  the  decoration  of 
the  old  Pennsylvania  chest  to  show  the  general  type  of 


250        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

painting  in  vogue  and  demonstrate  the  oneness  of  tradi- 
tion that  supplied  the  humble  painters  on  different  sides 
of  the  Atlantic,  and  at  an  interval  of  eighty  years,  with 
inspiration  to  guide  them  in  their  task  of  adornment. 

English  Work.  The  English  settlers  in  Pennsyl- 
vania did  not  practise  this  style  of  furniture  painting, 
but  occasionally  their  work  was  slightly  influenced  by 
contact  with  their  German  neighbours.  An  instance  of 
this  is  to  be  seen  on  an  iron-bound  strong-box,  once 
the  property  of  Robert  Morris  and  now  in  the  collection 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society.  The  decoration 
was,  in  all  probability,  done  either  by  a  German  colonist, 
working  in  Philadelphia,  or  else  by  an  English  colonist 
who  had  seen  somewhat  of  the  decoration  done  by  the 
German  settlers  and  recognised  its  intrinsic  value. 
Tulips  and  birds  of  gay  plumage  are  the  motifs  of 
ornament  and  are  painted  in  the  little  squares  between 
the  heavy  iron  bands  or  straps. 

Windsor  chairs  and  settees  were  almost  invariably 
painted,  dark  green  being  a  favourite  body  colour, 
although  other  colours  also  were  used,  and  the  decora- 
tion generally  consisted  of  neat  lining  and  banding  in 
some  contrasting  colour  or  gilt. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  in 
the  fore  part  of  the  nineteenth,  wooden  chairs  and 
settees,  with  wide  top  rails  and  vertical  slats  in  the 
back,  of  a  common  farmhouse  type  that  is  probably  to 
be  attributed,  in  the  first  place,  to  a  Dutch  origin,  were 
painted  with  great  care.  A  body  colour  was  first 
applied — green,  red,  yellow,  blue,  brown,  or  grey — and 
lined  and  banded  with  black,  and  then  the  decoration, 
consisting  of  conventional  designs,  flowers  in  baskets 
or  sprays  of  flowers,  was  painted  on  the  wide,  flat  space 


PAINTED  LEATHER  FIRE  BUCKET  AND  FIRE  HAT 
Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society 


PENNSYLVAXIA-GKli.MAX      PAINTED      "BRIDE      BOX,"      EIGIITEEXTH 

CENTURY 
Frishmuth  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


PAINTED    METAL    TRAY    WITH    BUFF   GROUND    AND    DARK    BORDER, 

FLOWERED  AND  HATCHED; EARLY   NINETEENTH  CENTURY 

In  possession  of  Abbot  McClure,  Esq. 


EIGHTEENTH    AND    EARLY    NINETEENTH    CENTURY    TOLEWARE    OR  TIN 

WITH   DECORATIVE   PAINTING 
Courtesy  of  John  C.  Nippes,  Esq.,  Haddonfield,  New  Jersey 


DECORATIVE  PAINTING  251 

of  the  top  rail.  This  decoration  was  sometimes  painted 
in  black  from  a  stencil  pattern  and  sometimes  in  colours, 
with  a  touch  of  gilding  added.  Not  a  few  of  the  top 
rails  and  cross  rails  of  chairs  and  settees  were  dec- 
orated by  the  application  of  transfer  designs,  laid  on 
in  the  same  manner  as  decalcomanias.  The  metallic 
colours  and  the  exact  repetition  of  the  same  design  in 
hundreds  of  cases  prove  this  beyond  peradventure. 
The  painting  of  chairs  and  settees  of  both  this  type  and 
the  Windsor  pattern  was  common  throughout  the  coun- 
try. Chairs  of  a  late  Sheraton  type  also  came  in  for  a 
share  of  decorative  painting. 

During  the  early  nineteenth  century — the  American 
Empire  period  in  furniture — the  practice  was  prevalent 
of  applying  a  stencilled  decoration  to  furniture  with 
gilt.  Colours,  too,  were  frequently  included  in  the 
scheme  of  embellishment.  The  ornament  was  bestowed 
upon  the  top  rails  and  cross-bars  of  chairs  and  settees, 
the  top  rails,  seat  rails,  and  rolled-over  arms  of  sofas 
and  couches,  and  the  fronts  of  drawers.  Lining  was 
used  wherever  it  might  show  to  advantage.  This  liberal 
use  of  gilt  was  obviously  a  substitute  for  the  elaborate 
brass  mounts  so  characteristic  of  French  Empire  fur- 
niture, but  the  craftsmen  managed  to  put  a  good  deal 
of  life  and  individuality  into  what,  at  first,  was  a  mere 
cheap  imitation,  so  that  it  came  to  ha\'e  a  distinct  and 
legitimate  decorative  value.  The  gilding  was  some- 
times applied  directly  to  the  mahogany,  but  was  more 
commonly  used  for  the  embellisliment  of  cheaper  fur- 
niture that  had  been  first  painted  with  a  body  colour — 
oftentimes  drab,  olive  green,  or  brown — and  appro- 
priately lined.  The  gilded  or  painted  and  gilded  pat- 
tern of  decoration,  stencilled,  free-hand,  or  transfer, 


252        EARLY  A^IERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

was  generally  elaborate  and  embraced  the  motifs  that 
were  characteristic  of  the  carving  of  the  period- 
acanthus  leaves,  cornucopias,  fruit,  flowers,  cords  and 
tassels,  drapery,  swags  and  drops,  the  anthemion,  and 
other  designs  that  may  be  readily  identified.  When  the 
work  was  done  free-hand  or  stencilled,  shading  was 
accomplished  by  applying  umber,  sienna,  or  even  black 
in  the  required  places. 

MISCELLANEOUS  OBJECTS 

The  wider  general  field  of  domestic  decorative  paint- 
ing, comprehending  numerous  small  objects  of  miscel- 
laneous purpose  and  varied  form,  but  of  a  decorative 
value  equal  to,  or  even  greater  than,  that  of  the  larger 
articles  of  furniture,  has  been  little  heeded  except  in  a 
fugitive  sort  of  manner  and  more  by  w^ay  of  allusion 
than  by  direct  reference.  We  have,  as  a  rule,  failed  to 
grasp  the  real  character  and  full  significance  of  these 
lesser  furnishings,  either  because,  as  units  of  the  resid- 
uary milieu  of  heirlooms  constantly  surrounding  us, 
we  have  taken  them  as  a  matter  of  course,  without  par- 
ticularly noting  their  details — for  most  people  see  least 
what  is  right  under  their  very  noses — or  else  because 
they  have  only  recently  been  rescued  from  the  oblivion 
of  garrets  and  junk-shops  and  paid  new  honours  of 
appreciation  by  antique  dealer  and  purchaser  alike, 
both  of  whom,  until  a  few  days  ago,  were  usually  too 
much  occupied  with  the  bulkier  and  more  substantial 
pieces  of  furniture  to  bother  with  '^  small  rubbish"  that 
was  only  one  degree  better,  to  their  then  way  of  think- 
ing, than  the  stuff  sold  in  penny  lots  at  country  sales. 
Clock  Faces.  In  the  household  gear  of  our  fore- 
fathers the  clock  was  a  point  of  central  interest  for  its 


DECORATIVE  PAINTING  253 

utilitarian  value.  It  was  but  natural,  therefore,  that 
they  should  try  to  make  an  object  towards  which,  of 
necessity,  their  eyes  turned  many  times  a  day  a  point 
of  decorative  interest  as  well.  Accordingly,  they  added 
the  embellishment  of  painting  to  tall  case,  bracket,  or 
hanging  clocks,  as  circumstances  permitted.  The  spot 
most  available  for  ornamentation  in  the  tall  case  clocks 
was  the  face,  and  there  we  find  a  variety  of  treatments, 
elaborate  or  simple,  as  fancy  or  skill  dictated.  In  the 
eight-day  clocks  with  the  astronomical  attachment, 
showing  the  lunar  phases,  there  was  always  an  excellent 
opportunity  for  painting  jolly-faced,  ruddy-cheeked, 
round-eyed  moons,  the  rotundity  of  whose  optics  carries 
the  beholder  back  to  the  Iliad  and  makes  one  think  of 
the  *' Ox-eyed  Juno."  Then  there  were  the  star- 
spangled  spaces  of  dark-blue  sky  between  the  moon 
faces,  and,  occasionally,  square-rigged  ships  that  sailed 
majestically  by  on  heraldically  waved  seas,  as  the  disc 
revolved  with  the  passing  days  of  each  month.  In  the 
spandrels,  at  the  upper  and  lower  corners  of  the  dial. 
Father  Time,  hour-glasses,  scythes,  gay-plumaged 
birds,  stiff  little  bunches  of  flowers  or  baskets  of  vari- 
coloured fruits  oftentimes  lent  an  additional  touch  of 
decorative  attraction.  Judged  from  a  purely  natural- 
istic and  pictorial  point  of  view,  the  painting  w^as  fre- 
quently villainously  bad,  but  the  decorative  effect, 
nevertheless,  was  good,  even  when  there  was  no  attempt 
at  conventionalisation  and  the  canons  of  perspective  or 
proprieties  of  anatomy  were  cast  to  the  winds,  and  so 
the  object  really  aimed  at  was  fully  accomplished. 

Clocks  without  the  astronomical  movement,  but  with 
a  lunette  or  round  arch  at  the  top  of  the  dial,  especially 
invited  the  labours  of  the  decorative  painter.     In  the 


254        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

semicircle  or  lunette  of  one  old  clock  face  an  ambitious 
country  artist — probably  one  of  the  German  colonists — 
lias  had  the  temerity  to  attempt  a  reproduction  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci's  "Last  Supper."  Viewed  seri- 
ously, it  is,  of  course,  a  caricature.  The  drawing  is 
grotesque,  and  the  colouring,  done  purely  from 
imagination,  is  startlingly  crude  and  garish.  Never- 
theless, it  satisfied  the  decorative  cravings  and  the  piety 
of  its  simple  maker  and  owners,  and  it  must  be  admitted 
that,  when  seen  from  a  distance,  it  is  not  w^iolly  ineffec- 
tive as  a  piece  of  decoration.  The  stiif  little  bunches 
of  flowers  at  the  corners  of  the  dial,  however,  are  much 
more  successful  and  convince  one  that  it  would  have 
been  far  better  if  the  decorator,  for  his  main  embellish- 
ment, had  stuck  to  the  birds  or  fruit  or  some  such  un- 
pretentious subject,  as  most  of  the  faces  display.  The 
faces  are  made  of  either  wood  or  metal.  Oftentimes  the 
dials  bear  the  name  of  the  clock  maker,  so  that  the  place 
of  authorship  is  thus  established,  although,  in  some  in- 
stances, the  dial  makers '  names  appear  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  clock  makers '  names.  It  is  not  difficult  to  identify 
unsigned  faces  of  native  American  origin,  for  the  dec- 
oration is  cruder  than  that  found  on  imported  dials 
painted  in  England  or  on  the  Continent. 

Paintings  on  Glass.  Another  sort  of  painting  that 
challenges  attention  by  numerous  examples  is  executed 
in  reverse  on  the  under  side  of  glass,  so  that  the  picture 
shows  through.  These  glass  paintings  are  found  chiefly 
in  panels  in  the  heads  of  mirrors  and  on  the  doors  of 
clocks  of  both  the  Willard  banjo  and  Eli  Terry  bracket 
types.  The  finest  painted  or  painted  and  gilt  mirror 
heads  are  of  English  or  French  make,  but  a  great  many 
of  the  American  efforts  in  that  direction  possess  con- 
siderable merit,  while  others  are  crude  and  sometimes 


DECORATIVE  PAINTING  255 

frankly  ugly  and  clumsy.  Notwithstanding  their  faults, 
however,  they  all  have  a  genuine  decorative  value.  The 
panels  that  are  only  painted  are  apt  to  be  hea\^  and 
blotchy  in  colour,  w^ith  a  marked  preference  for  strong 
greens,  insistent  reds,  and  staring  whites.  The  draw- 
ing is  generally  poor  and  often  childish,  and  the  sub- 
jects are  most  frequently  bits  of  local  landscape, 
familiar  to  the  painter,  or  merely  isolated  houses,  trees, 
or  fences  that  might  be  labelled  "a  house,"  "a  tree," 
"a  fence,"  and  so  on,  and  serve  admirably  for  illus- 
trations of  the  old-fashioned  spelling-books,  to  which, 
as  well  as  to  the  examples  of  pictorial  art  seen  on  many 
of  the  samplers  of  the  period,  they  bear  a  close  resem- 
blance. At  times,  also,  we  find  various  historico-patri- 
otic  subjects  depicted,  or  perhaps  a  front  view  of  Mount 
Vernon,  and  now  and  again  the  heads  of  Washington, 
La  Fayette,  and  other  Revolutionary  heroes,  sur- 
rounded with  laurel  wreaths,  flags,  and  other  emblems 
of  military  glory. 

The  mirror-head  panels  in  which  gold  decoration 
occurs  are,  in  the  main,  somewhat  better  in  execution 
than  those  that  are  merely  painted.  In  such  panels  the 
design  was  first  laid  in  with  black  paint,  the  drawing, 
of  course,  being  done  in  reverse.  Gold  size  w^as  then 
applied  to  all  the  surface  intended  to  display  a  gold 
backing.  Gold  leaf  was  next  applied.  This  adhered 
firmly  to  the  sizing  and  made  it  possible  to  wipe  off 
easily  whatever  portions  were  not  intended  to  remain. 
The  next  step  was  to  run  in  the  background  of  white 
or  grey.  The  effect  of  such  panels  is  often  exceedingly 
chaste  and  refined.  Tlie  best  were  made  in  England 
and  France  and  displayed  high  artistic  merit,  but  a 
great  many  of  real  excellence  wpre  executed  in  America. 
It  was  the  period  at  which  classic  feeling  was  para- 


256        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

mount  in  artistic  expression,  partly  owing  to  the  in- 
fluence of  the  'Brothers  Adam  and  their  emulators, 
partly  to  the  more  recent  influence  of  the  Empire  style 
as  set  forth  by  David,  Percier,  Fontaine,  and  their  con- 
temporaries. It  is  not  unusual  to  find  mythological 
subjects  executed  with  Flaxman-like  spirit,  simplicity, 
and  delicacy.  These  gold  bases  and  black-line  pictures 
stood  out  in  strong  relief  against  the  background  of 
grey  or  white  and  were  exceedingly  effective.  In  some 
of  these  mirror-head  panels  the  greater  part  of  the 
ground  was  taken  up  by  a  cross-hatched  diaper  pattern 
in  black  or  black  with  gold  rosettes,  while  a  medallion 
or  cartouche  in  the  centre  was  reserved  for  more 
elaborate  embellishment. 

American  makers  eagerly  copied  the  decorations  of 
the  imported  mirrors  and  produced  work  of  all  grades 
of  excellence,  some  of  it  rivalling  the  performances  of 
the  British  or  French  glass  painters  and  some  of  it 
sinking  to  the  level  of  puerile  crudity.  In  the  absence 
of  accurate  historical  knowledge  of  the  authorship  of 
an  individual  piece,  it  is  often  possible  to  establish  its 
American  origin  by  the  subject  illustrated,  and  occa- 
sionalh"  reliable  tradition  and  internal  evidence  unite 
to  confirm  the  attribution.  A  case  of  this  kind  is  ex- 
emplified in  one  mirror-head  whose  frame  is  known  to 
have  come  from  Baltimore.  The  work  on  the  frame  is 
unquestionably  American  and  is  precisely  similar  to 
that  on  other  frames  known  to  have  been  made  in  Balti- 
more about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Added  to  this,  the  scene  in  the  middle  of  the  panel, 
pourtrayed  in  black  lines  with  gold  backing  on  a  white 
ground,  is,  with  the  exception  of  a  fanciful  mountain 
across  the  water,  exactly  like  what  one  might  encounter 
in  a  thousand  places  along  the  shores  of  the  Chesa- 


METAL  CLOCK  DL\L  WITH    ]'AIXTKD  DEC- 
ORATION',  EIGHTEENTH  CENTIKV 
Courtesy  of   Mr.   James  Curran,   Philadelphia 


BANJO  CLOCK.  GLASS 
PANELS  PAINTED  IN 
REVERSE.  Early  Nine- 
teenth Century. 

Courtesy  of   Mr.   Richard 
W.  Lehne,  Philadelphia 


EAULV   NINETEENTH  CENTrUV  MIRUOU  TOP  WITH    HEAD 
PANEL   PAINTED   IN    HE\  ERSE   ON   CiLASS 
Courtesy  of  Mr.  Richard  W'.  Lehne,  Philadelphia 


DECORATIVE  PAINTING  257 

peake.  The  style  of  boat,  the  low,  bluff-like  headland, 
and  the  little  house  of  a  Colonial  type  now  fast  disap- 
pearing, but  still  to  be  met  with  in  out-of-the-way  places, 
all  contribute  their  share  of  cumulative  evidence. 

On  the  doors  of  bracket  or  shelf  clocks  of  the  Eli 
Terry  type  the  painting  on  the  under  side  of  the  glass 
closely  resembles  in  general  character  that  of  the  panels 
in  the  heads  of  the  numerous  small  mahogany-framed, 
upright  mirrors  of  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  These  clock  doors  are  usually  made  in  two 
sections,  the  upper  containing  the  clear  glass  in  front 
of  the  dial,  and  the  lower  displaying  the  painting.  The 
banjo  clocks  usually  had  two  painted  panels,  a  large  one 
on  the  shank  between  the  base  and  the  face  and  another 
on  the  square  or  oblong  base.  These  panels  were  dec- 
orated sometimes  with  paint  only,  sometimes  with  vari- 
coloured paint  and  gold.  The  battle  between  the  Con- 
stitution and  the  Guerriere  and  other  equally  stirring 
historical  events  supplied  a  favourite  set  of  subjects  for 
the  adornment  of  these  clocks  and  held  their  own  in 
popularity  with  the  imaginary  landscapes.  It  is  worth 
noting  that  these  decorations  painted  to  show  through 
glass  are  being  excellently  reproduced  in  large  numbers, 
and  it  is  even  more  worth  noting  that  the  method  is 
susceptible  of  extensive  and  successful  adaptation  for 
decorative  purposes.  The  small  paintings  on  the  glass 
sides  of  the  hexagonal  hall  lanthorns  should  not  be 
forgotten. 

Paintings  on  glass  of  a  distinctly  pictorial  nature — 
portraits,  still-life,  landscapes,  and  the  like — enjoyed 
much  vogue  in  England  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  and  there  were,  here  and  there,  attempts 
at  the  same  form  of  artistic  expression  on  our  own  side 
of  the  Atlantic.    Occasionally  one  meets  with  examples 

17 


258        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

of  this  more  ambitious  style  of  glass  painting,  and  now 
and  then  a  small  portrait  turns  up  that  seems  to  bear 
internal  evidence  of  American  origin. 

Metal,  Leatpier  and  Small  WooDEisr  Objects.  Dec- 
orative painting  of  the  same  general  description  as  that 
previously  noted,  running  largely  to  fruits,  flowers, 
birds,  and  stiff  little  bits  of  landscape,  was  constantly 
employed  for  the  embellishment  of  trays,  bellows,  can- 
isters, tin  tea-  and  coffee-pots,  and  other  small  objects 
of  household  utility.    Some  of  the  most  interesting  and 


FiQ.   1.    Painted  Tin  Box,  red  ground,  yellow  decorations.     Late  eighteenth  century 
Pennsylvania  German  work.     Property  of  Abbot  McClure,  Esq. 

agreeable  examples  are  to  be  found  on  the  trays,  both 
large  and  small,  which  played  a  conspicuous  part  in 
dining-room  garniture.  The  usual  ground  coloiirs  were 
black,  coral  red,  green,  or  straw  colour,  and  the  decora- 
tion was  generally  gold,  black,  or  polychrome.  Besides 
the  trays,  there  were  tea-caddies  and  small  tin  boxes 
designed  for  various  odd  purposes.  All  were  regarded 
as  fit  subjects  for  painted  decoration. 

Decorative  painting  on  leather  was  chiefly  to  be  seen 
on  the  water  buckets  belonging  to  the  members  of  the 
old  volunteer  fire  companies.     Two  or  three  of  these 


DECORATIVE  PAINTING  259 

buckets,  now  liiglily  prized  as  heirlooms,  generally  hung 
in  a  convenient  and  sometimes  conspicuous  place  in  the 
houses  of  the  members,  and,  as  almost  every  man  of 
substance  belonged  to  one  or  another  organisation,  they 
were  familiar  objects  of  household  equipment. 

Curtains  of  glazed  muslin  were  used  as  a  subject  for 
painted  decoration,  some  of  which  was  good,  while  other 
was  but  indifferent.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  present 
recurrence  to  landscape  and  other  painted  decoration 
for  this  same  purpose. 

Bellows  and  sundry  little  boxes  were  the  small 
wooden  objects  upon  which  the  dignity  of  painted  dec- 
oration was  ordinarily  bestowed. 

The  study  of  these  curious  manifestations  of  early 
American  decorative  painting  is  leading  to  a  growing 
and  wholesome  appreciation  of  the  daily  intimate  en- 
vironment of  our  forebears  and  to  the  modern  emula- 
tion of  what  was  really  good  in  their  handiwork.  Under 
all  this  painted  decoration  we  can  detect  a  sturdy  spirit 
of  self-reliance  and  honesty  of  purpose,  and  it  is  because 
the  old  fireside  art  had  so  much  vigorous  decorative 
value  that  it  is  still  fresh  and  potent  to  influence  us. 
Primitive  and  even  grotesque  it  may  be  at  times,  but  it 
all  appeals  to  us  with  new  force  and  living  interest 
when  we  realise  in  a  connected  way  what  it  really  ex- 
pressed, and  it  also  possesses  the  charm  of  stimulating 
inquiry  into  its  varied  sources  of  inspiration. 

Excellent  examples  of  one  sort  or  another  are  to  be 
found  in  nearly  every  museum,  and  there  is  scarcely 
an  antique  shop  that  does  not  offer  one  or  more  speci- 
mens for  purchase.  The  value  of  this  old  decorative 
painting  as  an  inspiration  to  the  modern  crafts  worker 
is  too  fully  recognised  to  require  any  comment. 


CHAPTER  X 

EAELY  PORTRAITURE  AND  ALLEGORICAL 
PAINTING  IN  THE  COLONIES 

UPON  first  thought,  it  may  seem  to  be  stretching 
a  point  to  include  portraiture  and  allegorical 
painting  among  the  decorative  arts,  but  a  closer 
acquaintance  with  both,  as  commonly  practised  in  the 
Colonies,  will  justify  the  classification.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  work  produced  by  a  very  few  men,  the  pic- 
torial attempts  of  the  Colonial  painters  are  scarcely  to 
be  ranked  in  the  realm  of  art,  and  if  they  are  not  con- 
sidered in  their  decorative  capacity  they  would  have  to 
pass  unnoticed,  which  would  be  a  pity,  for  they  repre- 
sent much  honest  creative  effort,  and  by  ignoring  them 
we  should  be  deprived  of  a  source  of  considerable 
amusement. 

The  modern  schoolboy,  the  old  Roman  street  gamin, 
and  the  early  American  painter  all  display  one  quality 
in  common.  The  modern  school  lad,  armed  with  a  piece 
of  chalk  or  crayon,  defaces  the  sides  of  houses  or  fences 
with  his  crude  but  oftentimes  vigorous  pictorial  fancy, 
for  which  inchoate  expression  of  a  deeply  implanted 
human  instinct  he  is  chided  by  his  law-abiding  elders 
and  roundly  cursed  by  the  owner  of  the  disfigured 
walls.  In  precisely  the  same  way  did  his  youthful 
Roman  prototype,  two  thousand  years  ago  or  more, 
give  vent  to  his  untutored  artistic  promptings  in 
sgraffiti,  to  which  we  now  attach  importance  for  their 
historic  value.  In  like  manner  did  the  early  American 
painter,  with  no  mean  degree  of  perception,  seize  upon 
260 


EARLY  PORTRAITURE  261 

the  salient  characteristics  of  the  subject  he  was  minded 
to  depict  and  proceed  to  put  it  on  canvas  as  best  he 
might  with  his  limited  technical  equipment,  producing 
results  frequently  full  of  \TLtality,  however  lacking  in 
accuracy  or  elegance.  The  common  quality  alluded  to, 
in  which  Colonial  limner,  Roman  street  urchin,  and  the 
sclioolboy  of  to-day  all  alike  share,  is  vigour  of  con- 
ception combined  with  crude  expression.  The  modern 
cartoonist,  comic  illustrator,  and  designer  of  pictorial 
advertisements  are  fully  alive  to  the  striking  effective- 
ness of  this  primitive  crudity  and  exaggeration  and  its 
appeal  to  popular  imagination,  and  have  assiduously 
employed  it  for  their  several  ends  at  the  risk  of  over- 
doing its  commercial  and  comic  usefulness. 

As  an  episode  of  pictorial  utterance,  this  aping  of 
juvenile  crudity  is  not  devoid  of  interest.  Wliile  we  are 
amused,  our  attention  is  also  focussed  on  what  one 
might  call  aboriginal  pictorial  principles.  We  derive 
much  the  same  sort  of  amusement  from  an  examination 
of  the  early  American  essays  in  the  fields  of  jDortraiture 
and  allegorical  or  biblical  painting,  and,  again,  we  per- 
ceive the  bared  workings  of  first  principles  in  untutored 
hands.  The  gaucheries  perpetrated  attract  us,  of 
course,  by  their  very  naivete  and  quaintness,  but  the 
chief  import  attaching  to  a  scrutiny  of  the  first  Colonial 
efforts  lies  in  the  ground  it  gives  us  for  making  com- 
parisons between  the  results  of  primitive  endeavour 
among  European  colonists  in  the  direction  of  pictorial 
art  and  the  products  of  recent  achievement.  At  the 
same  time,  an  inspection  of  the  infancy  of  American 
painting  and  the  contrast  it  presents  with  subsequent 
developments  is  essential  to  a  thorough  and  apprecia- 
tive understanding  of  our  present  art  status. 


262       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

There  is  no  need  to  dwell  upon  Benjamin  West — at 
least  the  mature  West  whose  labours  won  recogiiition 
and  patronage  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic — nor  to 
survey  the  work  of  Copley,  Gilbert  Stuart,  Charles 
Willson  Peale,  Rembrandt  Peale,  Sully,  and  sundry 
others  whom  one  naturally  associates  with  a  period 
when  American  painting  had  reached  a  point  where  it 
was  entitled  to  serious  consideration  on  the  score  of 
inherent  artistic  merit.  The  names  of  these  men  are 
household  words,  and  their  pictures  are  familiar  to  all. 
Our  present  concern  is  with  the  pioneers  who  represent 
the  incipient  stages  of  painting  in  America  when  the 
course  of  pictorial  art,  like  the  course  of  true  love,  ran 
none  too  smoothly  and  there  were  all  manner  of 
obstacles  to  be  overcome,  a  time  of  rugged,  struggling, 
and  not  altogether  promising  infancy.  Only  a  few  of 
them  can  be  mentioned  here  by  name,  but  they  will  serve 
to  indicate  the  general  types  that  existed. 

Starting  at  the  very  beginning,  there  is  the  portrait 
of  the  pietist,  Magister  Johannes  Kelpius,  painted  by 
Dr.  Christopher  AVitt,  in  1705.  This  was  the  first  por- 
trait in  oils  executed  in  America,  and  is  now  preserved 
in  the  collection  of  the  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society. 
It  is  painted  on  hea^^  linen  and  pasted,  like  a  flyleaf,  at 
the  beginning  of  a  manuscript  volume  of  hymns  and 
other  mystical  religious  effusions  composed  by  the 
artist.  Both  subject  and  painter  were  quaint  characters 
of  unusual  interest,  and  what  the  portrait  lacks  in 
technical  excellence  or  artistic  charm  is  made  up  in  the 
remarkable  associations  attaching  to  it.  Kelpius  was 
the  master  or  prior  of  the  strange  Rosicrucian  com- 
munity, composed  of  German  mystics  or  pietists,  which, 
in  1694,  founded  its  monastery  on  the  wild  banks  of  the 


PORTRAIT  OF  MAGISTER   JOHANNES   KELPIUS. 

PAINTED   IN    1705   BV  DR.   CHRISTOPHER   WITT 

The  first  portrait  in  oils  painted  in  the  Colonies 

Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society 


FIREBOARD   PAINTED   BY   EDWARD   HICKS 
Courtesy  of  Morgan  Bunting,  Esq.,  Darby,  Pennsylvania 


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I— I 

O 


EARLY  PORTRAITURE  263 

Wissahickon  Creek,  upon  a  tract  of  land  within  the 
present  limits  of  Philadelphia.  The  arrival  of  these 
peculiar  people  on  St.  John's  Eve  and  their  kindling  of 
the  Beltane  Fire,  with  its  mystic  rites,  made  a  suitable 
and  spectacular  introduction  for  the  curious  touch  of 
transplanted  medin?valism  grafted  upon  the  life  of  the 
Colony  so  long  as  the  brotherhood  continued  to  flourish. 
The  head  of  this  extraordinary  society,  Johannes 
Kelpius,  wasted  by  the  practice  of  a  too  strict  asceticism 
with  its  rigid  fasts  and  long  vigils  in  a  damp  cave, 
whither  he  was  wont  to  withdraw  for  meditation  and 
prayer,  died  in  ITOG,  at  the  age  of  thirty-three. 

Less  than  a  year  before  the  death  of  Kelpius,  the 
portrait  was  painted  by  Dr.  AVitt,  who  had  just  joined 
the  brotherhood  upon  his  arrival  from  England.  In 
many  places  the  paint  has  flaked  off  from  the  linen  back 
and  the  hues  are  dimmed  and  not  a  little  discoloured,  so 
that  it  is  now  virtually  a  study  in  bluish  greens  and 
browns,  but  there  is  a  vigour  about  the  drawing  that 
compels  attention.  Neither  composition  nor  drawing  is 
beyond  criticism,  the  colour  is  muddy  and  depressing, 
and,  even  when  fresh,  could  have  had  but  little  interest ; 
regarded  as  a  work  of  art,  the  painting  is  clumsy  and 
crude,  but,  nevertheless,  there  is  such  a  quality  of  a 
rough-hewn  boldness  and  honesty  about  it  that  one  feels 
constrained  to  pay  it  more  than  merely  passing  heed. 
It  is,  to  say  the  least,  unpretty,  but  it  is  interesting  and, 
if  tradition  may  be  trusted,  is  a  tolerably  faithful  like- 
ness of  the  emaciated  mystic  whom  we  see  clothed  in  a 
long,  monkish  gown  or  cassock  and  seated  in  a  con- 
templative attitude  in  an  armchair  beside  a  lecturn. 
There  are  doubtless  other  pictures  by  Dr.  Christopher 
Witt — chance  may  bring  them  to  light  at  any  time — • 


264       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

for  lie  was  a  most  versatile  and  productive  person. 
Besides  practising  as  a  physician  and  ministering  to 
many  patients,  lie  found  time  to  cultivate  a  garden  of 
simples,  paint  pictures,  as  we  have  seen,  make  clocks — 
j30ssibly  the  first  of  native  manufacture  in  America — 
jjlay  upon  the  virginals  and  organ,  the  latter  instrument 
being  of  his  own  construction,  pursue  the  study  both  of 
the  occult  sciences  and  practical  astronomy,  and  cast 
horoscopes  for  the  children  of  the  colonists. 

Another  early  painter  who,  as  well  as  Christopher 
Witt,  was  also  an  organ  builder  was  the  Swede,  Gus- 
ta\Tis  Hesselius,  who  arrived  at  Christiana,  now  Wil- 
mington, Delaware,  on  May  1,  1711.  A  few  weeks  later 
he  took  up  his  residence  in  Philadelphia.  In  1719  or 
early  in  1720  he  removed  to  Prince  George  County, 
Maryland,  and  received  from  the  parish  church  of 
St.  Barnabas  ''the  first  commission  on  record  for  a 
work  of  art  for  a  public  building  in  America,"  the 
vestry  engaging  him  in  June  (1720)  to  paint  the  church, 
'  *  and  in  August  following,  '  to  paint  ye  Altar  piece  and 
Communion  Table,  and  write  such  sentences  of  Scrip- 
ture as  shall  be  thought  proper  thereon.'  "  That  the 
execution  of  this  commission  was  satisfactory  may  be 
inferred  from  the  fact  that  ''on  Tuesday,  September  5, 
1721,  'the  Vestry  agrees  with  Mr.  Gustavus  Hesselius 
to  draw  ye  History  of  our  Blessed  Saviour  and  ye 
Twelve  Apostles  at  ye  last  supper  .  .  .  propor- 
tional to  ye  space  over  the  Altar  piece,  to  find  ye  cloth 
and  all  other  necessaries  for  ye  same  (the  frame  and 
gold  leafe  excepted  wch.  Mr.  Henderson  engages  to 
procure  and  bestow  on  ye  Church)  Mr.  Hesselius  to 
paint  ye  frame  for  all  wch.  ye  Vestry  is  to  pay  him  wn. 
finished  £17.  currt.  money.'  "    In  writing  of  Hesselius, 


EARLY  PORTRAITURE  265 

Charles  Henry  Hart  observes  that  it  * '  surely  marks  an 
epoch  to  receive  more  than  passing  consideration," 
"that  more  than  seven  years  prior  to  the  arrival  in 
this  country  of  John  Smibert,  who  is  commonly  re- 
garded as  the  father  of  painting  in  the  Colonies,  an 
elaborate  altar-piece  of  the  'Last  Supper,'  with  thirteen 
figures — Christ  and  the  twelve  disciples — should  have 
been  commissioned  to  be  drawn  by  a  resident  artist 
for  a  public  building." 

Hesselius  was  a  limner  of  no  mean  abilitv,  as  the 
paintings  that  may  with  certainty  be  attributed  to  him 
show,  and  he  is  not  included  among  the  pioneers  of 
American  pictorial  painting  to  be  pointed  out  as  the 
producer  of  crude  or  grotesque  canvases,  but  rather 
to  show  the  difficult  and  precarious  conditions  by  which 
the  path  of  the  early  painter  in  Colonial  America  was 
beset  and  how  he  had  to  resort  to  divers  expedients  to 
hold  soul  and  body  together.  'By  1735  he  was  back  again 
in  Philadelphia,  and  in  the  columns  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Gazette  for  December  11,  1740,  appears  the  following 
advertisement:  "Painting  done  in  the  best  manner  by 
Gustavus  Hesselius  from  Stockholm  and  John  Winter 
from  London.  Vig.  Coat  of  Arms  drawn  on  Coaches, 
Chaises,  «S:c.,  or  any  kind  of  Ornaments,  Landskips  Sign 
Show-boards,  Ship  and  House  painting,  Guilding  of  all 
sorts.  Writing  in  Gold  or  Color,  old  Pictures  cleaned 
and  mended  «S:c. "  This  advertisement  simply  meant 
that  Hesselius  had  to  come  down  to  common  sign  paint- 
ing to  make  a  living.  It  was,  however,  exactly  what 
others  had  to  do  at  a  time  when  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  public  was  sufficiently  discriminating  in  taste  to 
distinguish  between  art  and  paint  by  the  square  foot 
and  only  a  limited  number  of  patrons  could  afford  to 


266       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

employ  an  artist  or  to  compensate  him  adequately.  In 
England,  too,  it  must  be  remembered,  more  than  one 
great  painter  has  been  obliged  to  do  signs  for  pot- 
boilers to  tide  over  some  struggling  portion  of  his 
career. 

The  only  compensating  feature  of  the  situation,  so 
far  as  artistic  expression  is  concerned,  was  that  coach 
and  sign  painting  in  the  eighteenth  century  offered 
a  far  more  varied  and  interesting  opportunity  to  the 
painter  than  it  has  at  any  time  since.  Indeed,  we  are 
only  beginning  to  appreciate  the  possibilities  for  doing 
fine  work  on  the  signs  of  hostelries  and  tea-rooms,  and 
it  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that  several  eminent 
artists  have  executed  such  signs  for  places  in  which 
they  felt  some  particular  interest.  Hesselius  and  his 
contemporaries  did  such  painting  not  from  sentiment, 
but  of  necessity,  and  it  is  mightily  to  their  credit  that 
they  closed  their  eyes  somewhat  to  the  purely  com- 
mercial aspect  of  the  transaction  and  threw  themselves 
into  the  spirit  of  the  thing,  producing  many  really  fine 
pieces  of  work,  as  the  weather-beaten  remains  of  old 
sign-boards  still  occasionally  testify.  It  may  readily 
be  imagined  how  wide  a  field  of  design  was  open  to 
the  versatile  painter  when  not  only  hostelries  and  ale- 
houses, but  a  great  percentage  of  the  shops  also,  dis- 
played signs  to  attract  notice  and  give  individuality 
at  a  time  when  street  numbers  were  not  much  in  use  and 
it  was  customary  for  a  tradesman  to  designate  his  place 
of  business,  when  advertising,  as  located  at  the  sign  of 
the  Blue  Boar  over  against  St.  Paul's  Church  or  the 
sign  of  the  Three  Loggerheads  hard  by  the  Pewter 
Platter.  Besides  the  variety  afforded  by  the  execution 
of  signs,  there  were  coach  doors  to  be  blasoned  herald- 


EARLY  PORTRAITURE  267 

ically  and  armorial  bearings  to  be  painted  on  hatch- 
ments or  in  some  other  form  to  be  hung  up  in  the 
churches,  and,  if  we  may  believe  old  records,  the  display 
of  such  badges  of  family  pride  was  often  imposing  in 
edifices  like  Christ  Church,  Philadelphia,  King's 
Chapel,  Boston,  and  several  of  the  other  important 
Colonial  places  of  worship. 

While  not  despising  these  jobs,  Hesselius  also  found 
other  occupation  for  his  brush,  and  seems  to  have 
travelled  about  from  time  to  time  to  execute  commis- 
sions, and  doubtless  there  are  many  anonymous  can- 
vasses in  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  that  might  be 
ascribed  to  him,  were  all  the  facts  known.  In  the  hall- 
way of  the  Manor  House  at  Croton-on-Hudson  hang 
three  full-length  portraits  that  family  records  show  to 
have  been  painted  somewhere  about  1715.  Certain 
features  of  internal  evidence  indicate  that  they  were 
painted  on  the  spot  and  not  done  at  some  distant  place. 
The  name  of  the  artist,  however,  has  long  since  been 
forgotten  and  cannot  now  be  discovered.  The  paint- 
ings were  executed  by  a  limner  of  some  ability,  and  it 
is  not  impossible  that  Hesselius  may  have  been  their 
author  in  the  period  between  his  arrival  in  America 
and  his  removal  to  Maryland. 

While  such  men  as  Hesselius,  who  had  the  advantage 
of  European  training  before  their  migration  to  Amer- 
ica, displayed  far  more  capability  in  their  profession 
than  did  our  own  native  Americans  prior  to  their  cross- 
ing the  Atlantic  to  study  under  competent  masters,  we 
must  remember  that  not  a  few  of  the  local  forgotten 
and  nameless  painters  whose  crude  and  clumsy  portrait 
efforts  are  to  be  found  from  New  England  to  Georgia 
were  practically  self-taught  and  probably  had  as  much 


268       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

latent  ability  as  their  more  fortunate  and  better  tutored 
contemporaries  who  achieved  eminence  after  a  sojourn 
abroad.  A  comparison  of  their  work  with  the  early 
essays  of  our  more  celebrated  Colonial  artists  of  Amer- 
ican birth  tends  to  this  conviction.  Despite  discourage- 
ment from  Quaker  parents  and  relatives,  who  regarded 
the  '^ vanity  of  likenesses"  with  high  disfavour,  Ben- 
jamin West  persevered  in  his  ambitions — all  honour 
to  him  for  so  doing! — and  finally  succeeded  in  going 
to  England  to  study,  with  wiiat  results  we  well  know, 
but  many  of  the  performances  of  his  youthful  period 
are  sadly  lacking  in  the  qualities  one  might  expect  to 
find  in  the  juvenile  attempts  of  one  who  afterwards 
rose  to  such  fame.  As  a  case  in  point  may  be  mentioned 
a  little  picture,  painted  in  oils,  on  a  piece  of  board,  by 
West  at  an  early  age.  In  nearly  every  respect  it  is 
puerile.  Of  its  authenticity  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Its 
pedigree,  pasted  on  the  back  of  the  shingle,  speaks  for 
itself:  ''Painted  by  'Benjamin  West  before  he  left 
America  for  England.  Obtained  by  Horace  W.  Smith 
from  Mrs.  Pennypacker  (set.  90),  in  whose  house,  near 
Phoenixville,  Pa.,  this  daub  had  remained  from  the  time 
it  was  painted.  West  was  intimate  in  this  house.  Given 
by  H.  W.  Smith  to  Dr.  John  H.  Brinton,  1872."  The 
picture  is  evidently  one  of  West's  very  youthful  per- 
formances and  is  correctly  described  as  a  ''daub." 

John  Valentine  Haidt  was  another  painter  who  is 
almost  unknown,  but  his  crude  portraits  and  curious 
allegorical  pieces  are  fairly  representative  of  the  work 
produced  by  the  generality  of  Colonial  limners.  He 
was  born  in  Dantzig  in  1700.  His  father  was  court 
jeweller  in  Berlin,  whither  the  family  removed  in  1702. 
Being  designed  to  follow  his  father's  trade,  he  was 


EARLY  PORTRAITURE  269 

instructed  in  drawing  at  the  Academy.  Although  com- 
pelled to  work  as  a  jeweller,  he  longed  to  be  a  painter, 
and  in  1714  went  to  study  in  Dresden,  in  1716  in  Prague 
and  Augsburg,  in  1718  in  Venice  and  Rome,  afterwards 
visiting  Florence,  Paris,  and  London,  in  which  latter 
city  he  established  himself  in  1724  and  married.  He 
later  joined  the  Moravians  and  came  to  Pennsylvania 
on  the  church  transport  vessel  Irene,  landing  in  New 
York  in  1754,  whence  he  went  to  Bethlehem.  While 
there  he  painted  in  oils  biblical  scenes,  allegorical 
pieces,  and  the  portraits  of  prominent  Moravians.  A 
great  number  of  his  canvasses  may  be  seen  lining  the 
walls  of  the  archive  room  of  the  Moravian  Church, 
where  their  crudity  seems  singularly  in  keeping  with 
the  quaint  surroundings  and  piles  of  musty,  yellow 
documents.  Anywhere  else  they  would  be  out  of  place 
and  some  of  them  almost  ludicrous.  Judging  from  their 
abundance,  one  might  fancy  that  Haidt  had  been  under 
contract  to  paint  by  the  dozen  the  portraits  of  these 
solemn  old  gentlemen  and  their  placid  visaged  wives, 
Vv'ith  preternaturally  narrow  and  high  corsage  and  tight 
white  caps.  Notwithstanding  their  crudity  and  their 
overpoweringly  brown  and  sombre  tone,  there  are  occa- 
sional refreshing  dashes  of  rich  and  vigorous  colour 
and  a  certainty  suavity  of  brushwork  that  show  that 
Haidt  imbibed  and  retained  some  of  the  elements  of 
his  previous  instruction. 

In  the  allegorical  and  heroic  field  we  come  to 
Edward  Hicks,  a  cousin  of  the  famous  Elias  Hicks,  of 
Jericho,  Long  Island.  Born  in  1780,  in  Bucks,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  which  county  he  passed  most  of  his  life, 
Hicks  presents  the  incongruous  spectacle  of  a  Quaker 
painter.    West  surmounted  the  obstacles  of  his  Quaker 


270        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

birth  and  training,  but  Hicks  remained  a  rigid  Friend, 
deeply  concerned  in  the  affairs  of  meeting,  till  his 
dying  day.  He  seems,  nevertheless,  to  have  been  able 
to  reconcile  his  occupation  with  the  principles  of  his 
sect,  whose  stricter  members  were  generally  averse 
to  the  frivolity  of  art.  Perhaps  Hicks 's  failure  to 
achieve  anything  worthy  the  name  of  art  may  account 
for  Friendly  leniency  in  his  case.  He  died  in  1849, 
and  painted  prolifically  up  to  the  time  of  his  demise. 
Although  his  labours  spread  over  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  their  spirit  of  conception  and  execu- 
tion belong  rather  to  the  immediately  post-Colonial 
period,  when  the  exodus  or  financial  ruin  of  large 
numbers  of  erstwhile  affluent  Loyalists  deprived  artists 
of  much  patronage  and  encouragement  that  they  would 
otherwise  have  had. 

Although  Hicks  painted  prolifically,  he  painted  but 
three  or  four  subjects,  which  he  reproduced  again  and 
again  in  unending  succession,  sometimes  on  boards  to  be 
used  as  fire-boards,  sometimes  in  smaller  size  on  canvas 
to  be  hung  on  the  walls  as  adornments — Heaven  save 
the  mark!  The  most  favoured  subjects  were  ''Wash- 
ington Crossing  the  Delaware,"  "The  Signing  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,"  and  "The  Peaceable 
Kingdom."  " The  Peaceable  Kingdom, "  here  repro- 
duced in  its  fire-board  form,  is  really  a  chef  d'oeuvre  of 
grotesquerie.  The  ruddy-faced  infant  in  pantalets 
leading  the  lion  with  an  insufferably  bored  expression, 
while  a  phlegmatic  fatling  scratches  his  chin  on  the 
back  of  the  king  of  beasts ;  the  truculent  wolf  looking 
daggers  at  the  lamb  and  the  spotty  leopard;  William 
Penn  and  the  red  Indians  in  the  distance,  making  a 
treaty  and  quite  oblivious  of  the  menagerie  in  the 


EARLY  PORTRAITURE  271 

opposite  corner— all  these  features  are  delightfully  in- 
congruous. Incongruous,  also,  is  the  picture  of  the 
*  *  Signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, ' '  in  which 
one  of  the  august  signers  usually  has  three  legs,  while 
one  of  his  less  fortunate  compatriots  can  muster  but 
one,  and  another  sits  evenly  balanced  in  a  chair  two  of 
whose  legs  rest  in  space  beyond  the  edge  of  a  platform. 
Frankly  hideous,  clumsy,  and  grotesque  as  are  so 
many  of  the  efforts  of  pictorial  art  done  by  the  lesser 
painters  of  Colonial  and  post-Colonial  times,  there  is 
at  least  a  sincerity  of  purpose  about  them  that  com- 
mands our  respect,  and,  though  we  may  not  desire  to 
possess  them  or  to  study  them,  hoping  to  find  any  great 
intrinsic  merit,  an  examination  of  their  shortcomings, 
at  any  rate,  is  calculated  to  increase  our  appreciation 
of  conditions  existing  in  our  own  day. 


CHAPTER  XI 

EARLY  AMERICAN  DECORATIVE  WEAVING 

THE  old  fireside  crafts  of  the  loom  have  a 
glamour  all  their  own.  By  the  very  simplicity 
and  dignity  of  their  homely  products  they  com- 
pel a  far  more  general  and  sympathetic  appreciation 
than  many  a  higher  type  of  art  utterance.  They  afford 
a  sincere  expression  of  folk-spirit  and  indicate  an  in- 
herent love  of  beauty  that  effected  a  happy  union, 
wherever  it  could,  between  art  and  common  household 
objects  of  daily  utility.  Furthermore,  a  knowledge  of 
the  old  fireside  loom  crafts,  as  they  have  been  appro- 
priately called,  throws  an  interesting  and  valuable 
sidelight  on  the  intimate  domestic  life  of  the  people 
during  the  early  formative  period  of  Colonial  existence, 
a  period  we  are  somewhat  too  prone  to  associate  with 
only  the  sterner  and  more  strenuous  side  of  nation 
building. 

Among  all  those  ''homespun"  crafts,  none  was  of 
more  universal  practice  than  the  decorative  weaving  of 
coverlets  for  the  imposing  bedsteads  in  which  the  eight- 
eenth-century housewife  took  such  vast  pride.  In  the 
seventeenth,  eighteenth,  and  early  nineteenth  centuries 
the  bedstead  was  a  far  more  conspicuous  and  important 
article  of  furniture  than  nowadays,  when  our  modem 
notions  of  sanatory  propriety  prompt  us  to  have  the 
equipment  of  our  sleeping-places  as  simple  as  possible. 
In  the  days  of  the  Stuarts  and  during  the  reigns  of 
William  and  Mary  and  Queen  Anne,  the  magnificence 
of  the  pillared  and  canopied  bedstead  and  its  trappings 
was  indicative  of  the  rank  or  affluence  of  the  owner, 

272 


:   T-^  M  e^^       ^Y^^       ^Yiy: 


■DRAFT-  ]i()()K  OF  JoHX  LAXDE.S,  WITH  PATTERNS  FOR  COVERLETS 
Frishmuth  Colleption,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


HA\D\Vo\EN    HLLE  AND  WHITE  COVERLETS.  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 
Courtesy  of  John  C.  Nippes,  Esq.,  Haddonfield,  New  Jersey 


BLUE    AND    WHITE    HANDVVOVEX    CUVEKLET>S,    EIGHTEENTH 

CENTURY 
Frishmuth  Collection,  Pennsvlvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


DECORATIVE  WEAVING  273 

while  the  truckle  or  trundle  bed  served  for  the  children 
and  domestics  of  the  household.  The  elaborate  em- 
broidered or  brocaded  hangings  of  the  state  bedsteads 
and  the  costly  coverlets  belonging  to  them  were  the 
objects  of  great  care  and  esteem,  and  were  so  highly- 
prized  that  they  were  especially  mentioned  in  inven- 
tories of  household  gear  and  bequeathed  in  wills. 

During  the  whole  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  hey- 
day of  the  four-poster,  bedsteads  were  regarded  with 
special  pride  by  our  f  oremothers,  and  their  fitting  equip- 
ment was  a  matter  of  much  housewifely  concern.  In 
England  the  bedchamber  not  infrequently  did  duty  as  a 
reception  room,  while,  in  the  Colonies,  plenty  of  in- 
stances are  on  record  where  a  great  bedstead,  fully 
garnished  with  valances,  curtains,  and  coverlet,  formed 
a  part  of  the  parlour  furniture.  Under  the  circum- 
stances, the  mistress  of  the  house,  quite  naturally, 
wished  her  coverlets  to  present  the  best  appearance 
they  might,  and  lavished  a  degree  of  pains  upon  them 
of  which  the  modern  housekeeper  never  dreams. 

To  the  average  woman  in  the  Colonies,  the  rich  silks 
and  damasks,  employed  by  her  more  affluent  sisters  in 
England,  were  out  of  the  question,  but,  with  her  char- 
acteristic resourcefulness  and  self-sufficiency,  she  set 
to  work  with  the  materials  she  had  at  hand  and  wrought 
fabrics  that  compel  our  admiration,  both  for  beauty 
of  colour  and  grace  of  design.  These  hand-woven  cover- 
lets, which  collectors  and  antique  dealers  eagerly  search 
for  to-day,  were  either  entirely  of  home  manufacture, 
the  materials  being  spun,  dyed,  and  woven  by  tlie  women 
of  the  family,  or  else  the  threads,  spun  and  dyed  ready 
for  weaving,  were  given  to  a  professional  weaver,  who 
sometimes  plied  an  itinerant  trade,  sometimes  main- 


274        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

tained  a  stationary  loom.  It  is  safe  to  say,  however, 
that,  while  the  textures  produced  by  the  men  who  fol- 
lowed weaving  as  their  regular  business  often  excel  in 
elaboration  of  pattern  those  made  at  home,  the  latter 
almost  invariably  possess  a  superior  charm  of  colour 


Fig.   1.     "  Draft  "  for  Coverlet  from  "  Draft  "  Book  of  John  Landes. 
Frishmuth  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

and  individuality,  eloquent  of  the  loving  pride  woven 
into  warp  and  woof  by  their  makers. 

Coverlet  weaving  was  not  a  local  craft,  confined  to 
one  or  two  sections  of  the  country,  but  was  universally 


DECORATIVE  WEAVING  275 

practised  from  north  to  south,  from  New  Hampshire 
to  Georgia,  and  the  patterns  used  seem  to  have  been  the 
common  property  of  the  women  from  one  end  of  the 
Colonies  to  the  other.  While  certain  well-known  de- 
signs appear  to  have  originated  or  to  have  enjoyed 
unusual  popularity  in  certain  localities,  at  the  same 
time  one  is  just  as  likely  as  not  to  find  absolute  identity 
of  patterns  in  coverlets  woven  at  the  opposite  ends  of 
the  land,  and  oftentimes  the  identity  extends  to  colour 
as  well  as  pattern.  Doubtless  patterns  or  "drafts," 
as  they  were  called,  were  passed  on  from  one  woman 
to  another,  and  styles  in  coverlet  designs  travelled  in 
much  the  same  way  as  fashions  in  clothes. 

A  knowledge  of  the  decorative  weaving  employed  in 
making  coverlets  was  more  or  less  general  in  European 
countries,  and  the  wives  and  daughters  of  the  American 
colonists  preserved  the  traditions.  Thus  we  may  ac- 
count for  the  general  similarity  in  the  character  of 
the  coverlets,  no  matter  whether  they  were  made  by 
colonists  of  English,  French,  Swedish,  Dutch,  or  Ger- 
man extraction.  In  minor  details  of  colour  and  pattern 
tlie  influence  of  the  maker's  nationality  is  occasionally 
visible,  but  in  major  features  a  remarkable  uniformity 
prevails. 

These  coverlets  were  woven  throughout  the  eight- 
eenth century  and  continued  to  be  made  in  considerable 
numbers  till  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth.  Since 
that  time  their  manufacture  has  been  practically  re- 
stricted to  the  mountain  regions  of  the  South,  where 
so  many  old  customs  and  forms  of  speech  have  lingered 
unchanged.  The  continuous  vitality  of  craft  traditions 
among  the  southern  mountaineers  may  be  understood 
when  we  remember  that  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  find 


276       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

them  speaking  idiomatically  and  verbally  and  phoneti- 
cally pure  Elizabethan  English. 

The  sterling  craftsmanship  value  of  these  hand- 
woven  coverlets  has  won  modern  recognition,  and  they 


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lllll 
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lllll 

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— ^^^■■■— ■— ■— — —                      ■! 

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Fig.  2.     "Draft"  for  Coverlet  from  "Draft"  Book  of  John  Lannes. 
Frishmuth  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

are  now  made  by  the  Department  of  Fireside  Industries 
of  Berea  College,  in  the  southern  mountains,  and  at 
Asheville,  North  Carolina,  so  that  the  tradition  of  their 
fabrication  is  sure  of  being  conscientiously  perpetuated. 


DECORATIVE  WEAVING  277 

Thanks  to  Eliza  Calvert  Hall's  entertaining  book,*  pub- 
lished several  years  ago,  closer  interest  and  wider  atten- 
tion have  been  directed  to  the  old  woven  coverlet 
handicraft  and  the  decorative  and  historic  value  attach- 
ing to  the  coloured  spreads  that  once  adorned  the  beds 
of  nearly  every  house  in  bygone  generations. 

The  hand-woven  coverlets  consisted  of  a  *'  founda- 
tion of  cotton  or  linen  overshot  with  wool. "  In  a  vast 
number  of  cases  the  flax  was  spun,  the  linen  woven, 
the  yarn  made  and  dyed,  and  the  coverlet  woven  by 
one  woman,  carrying  out  each  successive  process  at 
her  own  fireside  and  using  only  such  materials  as  the 
home  farm  supplied,  for  not  a  few  of  the  eighteenth- 
century  housewives  were  as  expert  with  the  loom  as 
they  were  with  the  spinning-wheel,  and  they  were  like- 
wise adepts  in  the  mysteries  of  the  dye-pot  and  knew 
how  to  make  strong  and  durable  vegetable  colours 
whose  freshness  time  has  been  powerless  to  dim. 

A  great  many  of  the  nineteenth  century  coverlets 
were  woven  by  itinerant  weavers  who  carried  their 
looms  with  them  from  farmstead  to  farmstead  and  did 
the  year's  stint  of  weaving,  just  as  the  itinerant  cobbler 
paid  his  annual  visit  and  made  the  year's  supply  of 
shoes  for  all  the  household,  from  master  and  mistress 
down  to  swineherd  and  dairy-maid,  but  even  till  the 
time  of  the  Civil  War  probably  the  majority  of  the 
women  in  the  southern  mountains  and  in  remote  dis- 
tricts of  other  parts  of  the  country  did  their  own  weav- 
ing, and  on  many  of  the  plantations  in  the  South  there 
was  a  room  where  an  experienced  slave  spent  most  of 
the  time  weaving.  Since  so  much  of  the  coverlet  weav- 
ing was  done  in  this  thoroughly  individual  manner,  it 

•Hand  Woven  Coverlets:  Little,  Brown  &  Company. 


278       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

would  be  strange  indeed  if  the  products  of  the  isolated 
domestic  looms  did  not  show  evidence  of  the  weaver's 
originality  in  colour  arrangement  and  combination  of 
patterns,  although  the  methods  of  work  and  the  limita- 
tions of  design  formation  necessarily  produced  a  gen- 
eric similarity  between  the  chief  features  of  the  spreads. 
The  very  act  of  decorative  creation  has  always  appealed 
to  woman's  imaginative  faculty,  from  the  time  of  Helen 
of  Troy  with  her  liandmaidens,  deftly  plying  the  silken 
threads,  or  Queen  Matilda  and  her  tire-women,  pictur- 
ing on  the  Bayeux  tapestry  the  story  of  the  Norman 
Conquest,  down  to  the  day  when  the  work-hardened 
hand  of  the  Colonial  farmer's  wife  drove  the  shuttle  to 
and  fro  as  she  wove  the  coverings  to  adorn  her  beds. 
The  individual  sense  of  colour  or  harmony  of  design 
prompted  many  a  housewife  to  act  upon  her  own  initia- 
tive and  depart  from  the  plan  or  'Mraft"  before  her 
in  the  selection  of  her  hues  or  the  marshalling  of  her 
figures,  thus,  by  the  exercise  of  her  inventive  ingenuity, 
originating  new  patterns,  to  be  handed  on  in  due  time 
to  her  neighbours  and  by  them,  in  turn,  transmitted  to 
others,  until,  in  time,  they  passed  through  the  length 
and  breadth  of  the  land. 

The  later  coverlets,  woven  by  professional  weavers 
whose  greater  skill  enabled  them  to  deviate  from  the 
rigidity  of  geometrical  devices  and  conventional  re- 
peats, display  patterns  of  great  intricacy  and  elabora- 
tion, including  human  figures,  birds,  and  beasts,  as  well 
as  flowers,  fruits,  and  foliage  in  profusion. 

It  was  customary  to  name  the  simpler  geometrical 
designs  such  as  were  used  from  the  earliest  times  by 
the  housewives  who  did  their  own  weaving  or  the  more 
conservative  itinerant  weavers  of  the  old  school.  Some- 


DECORATIVE  WEAVING  279 

times  one  design  was  known  by  two  or  three,  or  even 
more,  different  names  in  different  parts  of  tlie  country, 
and,  vice  versa,  the  same  name  was  occasionally  applied 
to  different  designs  in  different  localities.  Now  and 
again  these  names  were  descriptive  of  the  character  of 
the  designs,  but  more  frequently  they  were  purely 
fanciful  and  dipped  into  the  realms  of  poetry,  politics, 
history,  or  geography.  We  hear  of  "Sunrise," 
'*  Checkers,"  "Stripes  and  Squares,"  "Maid  of 
Orleans,"  "Rose  in  the  Valley,"  "Washington's 
Victory,"  "Missouri  Trouble,"  "New  Jersey  Dream," 
and  scores  of  others.  It  is  worth  noting,  while  speaking 
of  these  old  patterns  and  their  endless  variety  of  colour 
combination  and  design,  that  the  weaves  and,  in  many 
instances,  the  colour  schemes  have  been  adapted  by 
some  modern  craftsworkers  to  the  manufacture  of  both 
silk  and  mercerised  cotton  textures. 

The  ' '  drafts ' '  or  patterns  which  served  as  guides  for 
both  the  housewife  at  her  home-made  loom  and  the 
itinerant  weaver  were  sometimes  fully  worked  out,  so 
that  a  modern  textile  worker  could  follow  them  with 
comparative  ease  after  a  little  study,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  sometimes  they  were  merely  indicated  by  cryptic 
signs  and  figures,  somewhat  resembling  ancient  musical 
notation,  on  narrow  strips  of  paper  or  parchment,  that 
to  the  uninitiated  are  as  baffling  and  unintelligible  as 
Egyptian  hierogly]Dhics  or  the  Runic  inscriptions  of 
the  Norsemen.  Occasionallv  the  colours  as  well  as  the 
pattern  were  indicated,  but  the  chromatic  choice  was 
usually  left  to  the  discretion  and  taste  of  the  individual 
weaver.  The  "draft"  book  shown  in  the  illustration 
is  in  the  Frishmutli  Collection  in  the  Pennsylvania 
Museum  of  Industrial  Art,  Philadelphia,  and  from  the 


280       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

internal  evidence  supplied  by  the  paper  used,  the  bind- 
ing, the  ink,  and  the  handwriting  of  the  compiler  or 
owner,  it  seems  to  date  from  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  John  Landes, 
whose  name  appears  in  the  front  of  the  book,  was  an 
itinerant  Pennsylvania  weaver,  and  it  is  quite  possible 
that  he  took  the  pains  to  collect  a  large  number  of 
acceptable  patterns  and  transcribe  them  in  this  con- 
venient form  to  carry  about  with  him  and  show  to  his 
patrons,  who  could  pick  out  ''drafts"  to  their  taste. 

The  colours  most  commonly  used  in  these  coverlets 
were  blue,  red,  and  white,  but  we  also  find  a  good  deal 
of  green,  pink,  yellow,  and  saffron,  and  sometimes  other 
colours,  too,  make  their  appearance.  The  dyes  em- 
ployed, as  previously  stated,  were  of  home  manufacture 
and  were  derived  from  vegetable  substances,  so  that 
the  colours  are  still  fresh  and  vivid.  The  renewal  of 
interest  in  vegetable  dyes  of  native  manufacture,  now 
being  successfully  employed  by  numerous  craft- 
, workers,  owes  not  a  little  to  the  inspiration  supplied 
by  the  chromatic  beauty  of  the  old  coverlets. 

The  Colonial  American  woman  showed  herself  quite 
as  resourceful  in  the  skillful  preparation  of  a  wide 
range  of  fast  dyes  as  she  did  in  other  particulars,  and 
knew  how  to  make  cochineal,  madder,  Brazil  wood, 
turmeric  w^ood,  indigo,  peach-leaves,  barks,  roots,  gums, 
and  blossoms  yield  all  their  varied  hues.  When  there 
was  one  of  them  she  could  not  obtain,  she  always  had  a 
satisfactory  substitute. 

The  collecting  and  study  of  the  old  hand-woven 
coverlets  is  well  worth  while,  both  because  of  their 
intrinsic  beauty  of  colour  and  pattern  and  because  of 
the  light  they  throw  on  an  important  domestic  craft  of 


BT.UK  A 


M)  W  IllTK  HAX1)\\<)\  KN  (<  i\  1  ;i{  l.i:  !>,  I    \ 

AND   KICHTKENTH   CENTrUlKS 

Courtesy  of  John  C.  Nippes,  Esq.,  Haddonficid, 


l;i.\   MM.liU,.\Tll 
New  Jersey 


LINEN  TABLE  COVER  WITH  WOVEN  PATTERN,  EIGHTEENTH  CENTIRY 
Courtesy  of  John  C.  Nippes,  Esq.,  Haddonfield,  New  Jersey 


HANDWOVEN  WOOLLEN  BLANKET;  BLUE  AND  WHITE  CHEQUERED  HAND- 
WOVEN  LINEN.     EIGHTEENTH  AND  EARLY  NINETEENTH  CENTURIES 
Courtesy  of  John  C.  Nippes,  Esq.,  Haddonfield,  New  Jersey 


DECORATIVE  WEAVING  281 

bygone  days  which  never  quite  died  out  and  which  has 
been  successfully  revived,  a  craft  susceptible  of  numer- 
ous api^lications  to  our  present-day  requirements. 

Home-spun-  Linens.  Vast  quantities  of  the  linen 
thread,  spun  on  the  wheels  that  whirled  busily  in  every 
well-ordered  household,  were  woven  into  sheets,  table- 
cloths and  bolts  that  could  be  cut  as  needed  for  clothing 
requirements.  The  quality  of  this  linen  varied  accord- 
ing to  the  notions  of  the  individual  maker,  but  even  the 
coarsest  was  a  fabric  of  admirable  character.  The 
weaving  was,  in  many  cases,  done  at  home  either  by 
members  of  the  household  or  by  itinerant  weavers  who 
went  from  farmstead  to  farmstead  at  stated  times, 
set  up  their  looms  and  stopped  in  the  house  until  they 
had  finished  all  there  was  for  them  to  do.  When  the 
weaving  was  not  done  at  home,  the  spun  thread  was 
sent   out  to  be  woven. 

Most  of  the  linen  was  perfectly  plain,  but  decor- 
ative effects  in  weave  and  colour  were  not  wanting.  In 
some  instances  a  chequered  pattern  of  blue  and  white 
was  woven,  the  threads  being  dyed  prior  to  the  weaving 
operation  {v.  plate  illustration).  The  writers  have 
never  met  with  other  than  a  blue  and  white  chequer 
pattern,  but  there  is  no  reason  that  other  colours  could 
not  have  been  used  as,  in  all  probability,  they  were. 

A  woven  pattern  was  also  occasionally  essayed  with 
good  results  {v.  plate  illustration)  in  linen  intended 
for  table  use. 

WOOLLENS 

Woollens  of  excellent  quality  were  also  produced  by 
the  Colonial  weavers  for  blankets  {v.  plate  illustration) 
and  dress  goods. 


282        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

RUGS  AND  CARPETS 

Under  the  head  of  Colonial  decorative  weaving  we 
shall  include  inigs  and  carpets  for  want  of  a  better  place  . 
to  consider  them,  although  they  w^ere  not,  strictly 
speaking,  wholly  woven  products.  The  weaving  of  rag 
carpets  and  rugs  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  a  pur- 
suit of  consciously  decorative  intent,  although  the  re- 
sults were  sometimes  agreeable  to  look  upon.  The  rugs 
and  carpets  (which  were  rarely  more  than  large  rugs) 
that  come  within  our  purview  w^ere  textiles  only  in  the 
coarse  canvas  foundation  or  body  upon  which  the  dec- 
orative patterns  were  afterwards  w^rought  in  vari-col- 
oured  woollen  yarns  by  hand,  the  finished  product  being 
a  nap  of  chenille-like  effect  with  colour  and  pattern 
not  infrequently  the  same  on  both  sides.  Choice  of  col- 
our and  design  lay  altogether  within  the  discretion  of 
the  individual  worker.  One  of  the  rugs  shown  in  the 
plate  illustration  exhibits  the  predilection  for  diag- 
onals and  bacillus-like  scroll  and  leaf  effects  that  ap- 
peared at  times  when  the  worker  suffered  under  the 
disability  of  a  jejune  invention.  In  other  instances 
the  worker  attempted  simple  geometrical  or  conven- 
tionalised floral  repeats,  sometimes  Avitli  commendable 
results  both  in  point  of  hue  and  pattern.  At  other 
times  the  worker  was  not  so  conservative  and  modest 
in  her  aims  but,  like  the  '' Pennsylvania  Dutch" 
women  who  wrought  the  little  rug  of  the  plate  illustra- 
tion, embarked  on  an  ambitious  scheme  beyond  her  pow- 
ers of  proper  execution  and  achieved  a  result  jang- 
lingly  garish  in  juxtaposition  of  magentas,  scarlets  and 
emerald  greens  and  startlingly  grotesque  in  design. 
Such  pieces  of  handiwork  may  be  interesting  and  quaint 
but  cannot  be  esteemed  for  beauty. 


DECORATIVE  WEAVING  283 

It  should  be  added  that  rugs  and  carpets  of  this 
hand-wrought  and  highly  individual  description,  though 
met  with  now  and  again,  are  not  numerous. 

DYES 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  skill  of  the 
Colonial  housewife  in  making  the  dyes  she  needed  and 
attention  has  been  called  to  their  variety,  their  beauty 
and  freshness  and  the  permanent  qualities  they  exhibit, 
even  after  years  of  exposure  and  wear.  There  can  be 
no  more  fitting  place  than  right  here  to  mention  a 
compendious  volume  that  must  have  been  invaluable  to 
housewives  in  the  day  of  its  publication  for  it  is  a  veri- 
table treasure-house  of  weaving  and  dyeing  lore.  The 
title,  somewhat  formidable  in  extent,  is  as  follows: 

THE 

DOMESTIC  ]VL\XUFACTURER'S  ASSISTANT 

AND 

FAlVnLY  DIRECTORY, 

IN  THE  ARTS 

OF 

WEAVING  AND  DYEING 

COMPREHENDING 

A  PLAIN  SYSTEM  OF  DIRECTIONS, 

APPLYING  TO  THOSE  ARTS  AND  OTHER  BRANCHES 

NEARLY  CONNECTED  WITH 

THEM  IN  THE  :NL\NUFACTURE  OF 

COTTON  AND  WOOLLEN  GOODS, 

INCLUDING  MANY  USEFUL 

TABLES  AND  DRAFTS 

IN  CALCULATING  AND  FORMING  VARIOUS  KINDS 

AND  PATTERNS  OF  GOODS 

DESIGNED  FOR  THE  lilPROVKMENT  OF  DOMESTIC 

]VL\NUFACTURES. 

BY  J.  &  R.  BRONSON. 

UTICA. 

PRINTED  BY  WILLIAM  WILLIAMS, 

NO.  CO,  GENESEE  STREET. 


284        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


The  following  list  of  colours  and  the  ingredients  that 
entered  into  their  composition  is  not  altogether  ex- 
haustive of  the  possibilities  open  to  the  woman  bent 
upon  brewing  her  dyes  but  it  will  sufficiently  indicate 
resources  and  methods.  If  one  substance  was  not  ob- 
tainable, our  resourceful  foremothers  could  always 
make  shift  with  some  other. 


Red  (Scarlet  and  Crimson)  : 

Cochineal 
Madder 

Nicaragua  wood 
Blue: 

Woad 
Indigo 

Larkspur  flowers 
Garden  purslane 

Yeixow  : 

Fuatic 

Wold 

Turmeric 

Anetta 

Sedge  grass  (with  alum) 

Peach  leaves 

Smartweed  leaves 

Alder  bark 

Birch  bark 


Brazil  Wood 

Camwood 

Pokeberry  root  (solferino) 

Wax  myrtle 
Knot  grass 
Spiderwort  flowers 


Walnut  bark 
Hickory  bark 
Yellow  oak  bark 
Lombardy  poplar  bark 
Sumac  stalks 
Yellow  locust 
Osage  orange 
Clematis 


gold 


seal    ( with 


Gbeen: 

Green,  of  course,  could  be  produced  in  almost  innumerable  ways  by 
combining  blues  and  yellows  in  proper  proportion,  but  the  following  also 
yielded  desirable  green  dyes: 

Black  oak  bark  Turmein    or 

Meadow  garlic  (with  lime)  indigo) 

Orange  or   yellow  root    (with 
indigo) 

Black  :  Bbown  : 

Logwood  Butternut 

Nutgalls  Hemlock 

Bugle  weed  Maple 


PENXSYLVAXIA  GERMAX  HAXDMADE  RLCJ.    EIGHTiOKXTII  CEX  TLKY 
Courtesy  of  II.  L.  Duhrins,  Jr.,  Esq. 


HAXDMADE  UIG:  W  <  )K.STE1>  <)X  WoVEX  lOl  XDA  1  K  )X.     EKiHTEEXTII 

CEXTIRY 
Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


DECORATIVE  WEAVING  285 

With  black  and  the  three  primary  colours  within 
their  reach,  it  was  a  comparatively  simple  matter  for 
the  Colonial  dyer  to  arrive  at  almost  any  hue  she  de- 
sired merely  by  the  process  of  combination.  The 
weaver,  also,  knew  how  to  attain  excellent  and  varied 
colour  effects  and  gradations  of  weaving  a  warp  of  one 
colour  with  a  woof  of  another. 

Mordants  were,  of  course,  necessary  to  fix  the  col- 
ours and  for  this  purpose  alum  was,  perhaps,  the  most 
universally  useful.  Although  the  average  woman  of  the 
Colonial  period  was  quite  as  ignorant  of  chemistrj%  in  a 
theoretical  way,  as  is  her  granddaughter  or  great- 
granddaughter  of  to-day,  she  was,  nevertheless,  often 
able  to  extract  three  or  four  colours  from  the  same 
substance  by  combining  it  with  various  chemical  agents. 
This  she  had  learned  by  experience  or  by  oral  tradition 
from  her  elders.  Besides  alum,  sal-ammoniac,  copper- 
as, veridigris  and  cream  of  tartar  were  servants  ever 
ready  to  her  hand. 

Note  :  For  some  of  the  homely  recipes,  giving  min- 
ute directions  for  distilling  and  using  the  vegetable  dyes 
extracted  from  common  plants,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  Hand-AVoven  Coverlet  book,  previously  noted. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  ART  OF  ''FRACTUR"  OR  PEN-AND-BRUSH 

ILLUMINATION 

HEREDITY  and  tradition  are  two  of  the  most 
potent  forces  to  be  reckoned  in  the  shaping  of 
human  tendencies  and  actions.  Deny  the  one 
and  decry  the  other  as  we  may,  their  influence,  never- 
tlieless,  is  very  real  and  shows  its  power  in  every  phase 
of  creative  activity.  By  no  means  the  least  conspicuous 
workings  of  heredity  and  tradition  are  observable  in 
matters  of  art.  No  more  apt  illustration  of  the  vitality 
and  long  persistence  of  hereditary  art  traditions  could 
be  found  than  the  endurance  of  a  mediaeval  illumina- 
ting process  found  among  the  Pennsylvania  German 
colonists  and  perpetuated  by  their  descendants,  till 
quite  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  This 
illuminating  process  was  called  "fractur"  painting. 

In  a  previous  chapter,  devoted  to  a  consideration  of 
slip-decorated  pottery,  attention  was  called  to  the  origin 
of  these  same  people,  their  dominant  characteristics, 
and  their  peculiar  isolation  from  the  other  colonists  by 
whom  they  were  surrounded,  an  isolation  that  has  con- 
tinued, in  large  measure,  to  the  present  day  and  made 
possible  the  vigorous  survival  of  many  customs  and 
traditions  which  otherwise  must  inevitably  have 
vanished  long  since. 

However  little  we  Americans  of  English  descent  and 
tradition  may  know  of  the  Pennsylvania  Germans,  and 
however  slightly  we  may  understand  the  ways  and 
ideals  of  this  "people  apart"  who,  nevertheless,  have 
been  our  neighbours  for  centuries,  we  cannot  fail  to  be 
strongly  impressed  by  the  various  manifestations  of 

286 


c 


?5^'^^P5)® 


-i .ir.'  3". 


r  ~.T  - 


f=#^ 


4_4  rS: . If. 


4?fr 


-n---       'p~<^    a 


K- 


FRACTUR    PAINTINGS    EXECUTED    BY    THE    RELIGIOUS    AT    EPHRATA. 
PENNSYLVANIA,  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 
Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society 


THE  ART  OF  "FRACTUR"  287 

their  art  that  come  to  our  notice  from  time  to  time. 
Crude,  very  crude,  it  unquestionably  is,  but,  all  the 
same,  there  is  a  certain  virility  inherent  in  it  and  a  fresh 
fertility  of  decorative  sense  that,  despite  all  rudeness 
of  form  and  execution,  convince  us  that  here  is  the 
genuine  expression  of  a  folk  tradition  transplanted 
from  the  Old  World  principalities  whence  these  early 
settlers  migrated  to  Penn's  land  of  promise.  This  par- 
ticular instance  of  the  perpetuation  of  old  German 
craft  traditions  that  forms  the  subject  of  the  present 
chapter,  cherished  for  many  years  with  an  almost 
religious  veneration  among  the  descendants  of  the  early 
settlers  from  the  Khine  countries,  shows  that  the  his- 
tory of  these  folk  is  deserving  of  close  study,  and  we 
cannot  but  feel  regret  at  its  discontinuance  and  the 
discontinuance  of  the  various  other  crafts  about  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  there  began  a 
process  of  assimilation  to  the  ways  of  the  outside  world, 
a  process  now  well  on  its  way  to  completion,  with  the 
result  that  the  manifestation  of  picturesque  originality 
has  been  replaced  by  an  all  too  evident  and  commercial 
vulgarity.  Now  and  again,  in  examining  the  decorative 
craftsmanship  of  the  old  Pennsylvania  German  colo- 
nists, we  detect  the  recurrence  of  motifs  and  methods 
of  expression  that  unmistakably  evidence  a  close 
relationship  with  the  peasant  art  of  'Bavaria  and  some 
of  the  neighbouring  provinces. 

The  art  of  "fractur/'  or  pen-and-brush  illumination, 
a  form  of  painting  once  practised  among  the  Germans 
of  Pennsylvania  and,  in  a  modified  form,  adopted  to  a 
slight  degree  by  some  of  the  neighbouring  English 
colonists,  affords  an  intensely  interesting  revelation  of 
folk-art  about  which  next  to  nothing  was  known,  out- 


288        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

side  of  a  limited  local  sphere,  until  comparatively  recent 
years.  This  manner  of  painting  is  of  deep  interest, 
because  it  embodied  the  survival  on  American  soil  of  a 
mediaeval  art  tradition  that  had  virtually  disappeared 
in  Europe  by  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  in 
other  words,  the  art  of  illumination  practised  by  the 
monks  of  the  Middle  Ages ;  because  some  knowledge  of 
it  explains  many  curious  things  that  turn  up  from  time 
to  time  in  junk-shops  and  the  purlieus  haunted  by  col- 
lectors; because  the  quaint  naivete  in  the  colour  and 
design  of  the  specimens  most  frequently  met  with  is 
fascinating;  because,  finally,  it  reveals  the  vigorous  but 
wholly  untutored  decorative  sense  of  a  primitive  people. 
It  may  seem  a  far  cry  from  the  mediaeval  monastery  to 
the  woods  of  Colonial  Pennsylvania,  from  the  cell  of 
the  monkish  illuminator,  patiently  toiling  over  the  em- 
bellishment of  a  missal  or  breviary,  to  the  little  school- 
house  or  the  cloister  of  the  Pietist,  where  mystic  and 
country  schoolmaster  alike  adorned  the  pages  of  psalm- 
books  or  painted  gorgeously  coloured  and  fancifully 
designed  birth  and  baptismal  certificates,  but  the  line 
of  descent  is  clear  and  unbroken  to  prove  that  ^'frac- 
tur"  was  a  survival  of  the  ancient  art  of  illumination, 
and  the  tradition  cannot  be  denied. 

Besides  being  replete  with  the  marks  of  a  derivation 
from  Continental  sources,  the  pen-and-brush  illumina- 
tions are  engaging  and  varied  in  scope  and  application, 
as  may  be  readily  seen  from  the  collections  of  such 
zealous  collectors  and  antiquaries  as  the  Honourable 
Samuel  W.  Pennypacker,  sometime  Governour  of  Penn- 
sylvania, or  Henry  Chapman  Mercer,  Esq.,  of  Font  Hill, 
Doylestown,  Bucks,  whose  valuable  monograph,  en- 
titled ' '  The  Survival  of  the  Mediasval  Art  of  Illumina- 


THE  ART  OF  "FRACTUR"  289 

tive  Writing  Among  Pennsylvania  Germans,"  read 
before  the  American  Piiilosopliical  Society  in  Septem- 
ber, 1897,  contains  a  graphic  account  of  the  practice  of 
the  art  and  a  classification  of  the  several  ways  in  which 
it  was  applied.  Mr.  Mercer  has  done  more  than  any- 
one else  to  rescue  the  remaining  vestiges  of  this  folk-art 
from  oblivion  or  utter  destruction. 

Materials.  A  number  of  years  ago,  among  a 
** penny-lot"  of  miscellaneous  trash  that  had  come  from 
a  country  sale,  part  of  the  contents  of  a  garret  in 
Bedminster,  Bucks,  Mr.  Mercer  discovered  a  roughly 
made,  lidless  paint-box,  about  a  foot  long  and  six  inches 
broad,  with  several  compartments  containing  glass 
bottles.  For  a  long  time  the  ' '  find ' '  baffled  all  attempts 
at  identification,  but  it  finally  turned  out  to  be  the 
colour-box  of  a  teacher  in  one  of  the  German  schools 
that  had  been  maintained  in  Bucks  till  about  1840.  The 
longest  compartment  was  used  to  contain  ''goose-quill 
pens  and  brushes  made  of  the  hairs  of  the  domestic  cat. 
The  caked  colours  in  the  small  bottles  had  been  the 
home-mixed  inks  and  paints  of  the  schoolmaster,  once 
liquefied  in  whiskey,  and  the  varnish  was  composed  of 
the  gum  of  the  cherry  tree  diluted  in  water. ' '  With  this 
outfit  the  German  schoolmasters  were  wont  to  instruct 
their  pupils  in  the  art  of  "fractur/'  or  illuminated 
handwriting  on  paper  or  parchment. 

PURPOSE  AND  SORTS 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and 
the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  this  art  flourished 
vigorously  in  the  counties  inhabited  by  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Germans,  and  illuminated  hymns  and  ornate  title- 
pages  of  religious  books  were  produced  in  great 
numbers.  Although  "fractur''  painting  may  be  said  to 

19 


290        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

have  been  of  two  sorts,  the  religious  and  the  secular  or 
semi-religious,  for  even  the  pieces  that  were  not  of  an 
ostensibly  religious  character  rarely  escaped  altogether 
from  some  trace  of  religious  symbolic  allusion,  the  art 
was  undoubtedly  derived  from  religious  sources,  was 
first  practised  in  America  with  exclusively  religious 
intent,  and  seems  not  to  have  been  used  ''for  the  dec- 
oration of  secular  themes,  such  as  songs,  ballads,  or 
rimes. ' '  Whatever  instances  of  its  entire  secularisation 
do  occur  are  comparatively  rare.  ^'Fractur"  found  ex- 
pression in  illuminated  song-books,  such  as  those  made 
in  the  religious  community  at  Ephrata;  in  the  title- 
pages  of  small,  plain  manuscript  song-books,  often  with 
the  owner's  name  inscribed  in  a  surrounding  border 
composed  of  ''overhanging  tulips  or  lotus,  or  birds  and 
trumpet-blowing  angels";  in  rewards  of  merit  on  loose 
leaflets ;  in  book-marks ;  in  baptismal  certificates,  mar- 
riage and  death  registers  in  family  Bibles  or  on  sepa- 
rate sheets  of  heavy  paper,  and,  finally,  in  the  less  com- 
mon essays  at  pictorial  adornment  to  be  framed  and 
hung  upon  otherwise  bare  walls. 

The  noticeable  difference  in  the  character  and  qual- 
ity of  these  illuminations  is  to  be  explained  by  their 
difference  of  origin.  Those  that  came  from  the  re- 
ligious community  at  Ephrata,  for  instance,  are  char- 
acterised by  a  certain  refinement  of  design  and  dexterity 
of  touch — they  were  evidently  the  objects  of  loving  care 
and  pride,  and  time  was  freely  spent  upon  them — while 
some  of  those  that  emanated  from  the  desks  of  country 
schoolmasters  or  were  produced  by  their  pupils  were 
gauche  and  grotesque  in  form  and  colour  to  the  last 
degree.  In  between  the  two  extremes  came  all  shades 
of  excellence.  Both  sorts  are  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing illustrations. 


THE  ART  OF  "FRACTUR"  291 

Eeligious  ' '  Feactub  ' '  Work. — The  Ephrata  Paint- 
ings. A  number  of  the  designs  illustrated  are  taken 
from  books  of  psalm-tunes  made  by  members  of,  or 
belonging  to,  the  community  in  the  cloister  at  Ephrata, 
in  Lancaster  County.  They  occur  on  title-pages,  as 
single-page  embellishments,  interspersed  here  and  there 
throughout  the  volume,  and,  above  all,  as  decorations 
to  fill  the  spaces  between  the  ends  of  tunes  and  the 
margin.  Double  bars  in  the  music  were  adorned  with 
smaller  illuminations  of  the  same  general  character, 
and  occasionally  the  tops  and  bottoms  of  the  pages 
came  in  for  a  share  of  coloured  enrichment.  As  stated 
before,  coloured  inks  were  used  and  w^ere  applied  with 
quill  pens  and  fine  cat-hair  brushes.  The  colours  were 
vivid  and  often  employed  in  great  variety.  Then,  again, 
in  some  specimens,  only  two  or  three  colours  w^ere 
used,  and  not  a  few  of  these  simple  schemed  pieces  are 
among  the  most  artistic  and  elf ective  to  be  found.  In  all 
the  Ephrata  illuminations  we  see  the  same  marvellously 
minute  pen-work  that  reminds  one  of  the  fine  lines  in 
old  Persian  miniatures. 

As  an  example  of  simple  colouring,  the  dove  design 
may  be  cited.  It  is  executed  entirely  in  green  and  blue 
of  a  subdued  tone,  so  combined,  however,  that  there  is 
no  lack  of  variety  and  interest.  The  big  heart  with 
the  doves  from  ''Andenken  am  Schwester  Martha"  is 
effectively  executed  in  black,  vivid  green,  and  carmine, 
while  the  lotus-like  tulip,  from  the  same  volume,  is  done 
in  black,  green,  brown,  and  red.  This  book  also  con- 
tains numerous  examples  of  the  diversity  of  intricate 
pen-work  often  employed.  There  are,  for  instance, 
many  stippled  or  etched  backgrounds  edged  with  a  fine 
line  of  bright  green  or  rod,  while  the  bold  lettering  in 
German  text  is  cross-hatched  or  left  in  white. 


202       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

The  illumination  from  the  manuscript  music-book 
is  a  full-page  illustration  in  olive,  mauve,  and  green, 
skillfully  combined  to  give  great  variety  of  colour 
effect.  An  illumination  from  the  Ephrata  Choral  Book 
is  exceedingly  interesting,  because  of  the  simplicity  of 
colouring  and  delicacy  of  drawing.  The  alternate 
petals  of  the  pinks  are  of  deep  blue,  while  the  lighter 
petals  between  them  are  of  green,  delicately  dotted  or 
stippled  on  the  white  ground  of  the  paper.  The  doves 
are  of  a  lighter  blue,  as  are  also  some  of  the  upper 
leaves.  The  black  ink  has  become  a  mellow  brown  from 
age. 

Another  small  design  is  taken  from  a  leather-bound 
blank  receipt  book  which  was  turned  into  a  hymn-book 
with  characteristic  thrift.  There  is  no  title-page,  but 
a  note  on  the  flyleaf  states  that  the  owner,  probably  a 
member  of  the  Ephrata  community,  bought  it  in  1817, 
and  another  note  at  the  end  states  that  it  was  finished 
in  1820.  During  this  space  of  three  years  the  one  hun- 
dred and  ninety-nine  pages  of  closely  written  notation 
were  transcribed  and  embellished  with  a  large  number 
of  illuminations.  The  mere  manual  labour  involved 
must  have  kept  the  scribe  and  illuminator  busy  a  great 
portion  of  the  time.  The  design  is  wrought  chiefly  in 
blue,  red,  and  black.  The  alternate  petals  of  the  flowers 
are  made  of  fine  dots  of  blue  and  bright  red,  which, 
with  plenty  of  white  background  showing,  give  the  effect 
of  pink.  The  dark  petals  are  solid  blue.  The  shank  is 
diapered  in  red,  black  and  white.  Olive  brown,  a  deeper 
browni,  dark  green,  black,  and  bright  green  are  ob- 
servable in  the  leaves.  The  chequer  border  at  the  bot- 
tom is  made  of  green,  black,  red,  and  white  ingeniously 
combined. 


i^\' 


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PEN.WSVIAAMA   GKRMAN    BAPTISMAL   CERTIFICATE    OU    TAUFSCHEIN, 

EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 
Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society 


I'll  iM  11  KECUUD,  FHACTUR  PAINTING.  EXECUTED  BY  ENGLISH  COLONISTS 
Frishmuth  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


THE  ART  OF  "FRACTUR"  293 

The  Schoolmasters'  Paintings.  Of  quite  different 
staiiiiD  and  far  inferior  merit  is  the  Taufschein,  or  bap- 
tismal certificate.  In  design  it  is  involved  and  gauche, 
the  execution  is  grotesque,  and  the  plenitude  of  clam- 
orous reds  and  yellows  is  blatantly  rampant.  The 
lady  angels  at  the  top,  loudly  clad  in  alternate  red  and 
yellow  stripes,  are  truly  fearsome  creatures.  The 
central  portion  is  filled  with  text  giving  the  date  of 
the  baptism  and  also  the  date  of  the  child's  birth,  most 
accurately  recording  the  exact  hour  and  minute.  This 
punctilious  solicitude  about  the  hour  and  minute  of 
birth  is  found  in  all  these  old  records,  and  the  entries 
were  thus  made  for  reference  for  astrological  purposes ; 
in  other  words,  so  that  the  local  astrologer  might  have 
accurate  data  for  casting  the  child's  horoscope.  White 
magic — witch  doctoring  it  is  called — and  the  casting  of 
horoscopes  are  still  practised  in  rural  Pennsylvania 
German  communities. 

The  baptismal  certificate,  just  discussed,  represents 
the  opposite  extreme  of  fractur  expression  to  that 
executed  by  the  religious  at  Ephrata.  It  is  evidently 
the  indifferent  work  of  a  country  schoolmaster  or  one 
of  his  pupils.  In  between  this  extreme  and  the  delicate, 
finished  illuminations  from  the  Ephrata  cloister  were 
paintings  of  all  grades  of  excellence  wrought  by  clever 
pupils  and  their  instructors.  There  is  little  doubt  that 
some  of  the  potters  who  decorated  the  slip-traced  and 
sgraffito  plates  and  platters  produced  in  the  field  pot- 
teries also  tried  their  hand  at  illuminating  baptismal 
and  birth  certificates,  marriage  records  and  death  me- 
morials, book-marks,  testimonials,  and  pictorial  devices 
for  wall  embellishment  with  fractur  painting.  It  is 
also  highly  probable  that  these  same  potters  received 


294        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

their  first  training  in  draugiitsmansliip  and  the  prin- 
ciples of  design,  which  they  afterwards  applied  to  the 
decoration  of  pottery,  through  their  lessons  in  fractur 
painting  as  children  or  youths  at  the  hands  of  village 
schoolmasters,  for  a  course  in  fractur  was  reckoned  one 
of  the  finishing  touches  in  the  curriculum. 

After  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when 
illumination  or  fractur  was  no  longer  taught  in  the  Ger- 
man country  schools  and  the  art  was  rapidly  dying 
out,  substitutes  for  the  hand-painted  certificates  w^ere 
printed  in  coloured  inks,  and  were  so  dreadful  that  the 
kindest  thing  is  to  let  them  pass  without  further  notice. 

Although  the  semi-secular  application  of  fractur 
painting  was  reminiscent  of  religious  inspiration,  and 
the  baptismal  and  birth  certificates  had  their  distinctly 
religious  significance,  they  also  served  a  purely  secular 
jjurpose  by  being  used  as  wall  adornments. 

Secular  '^Feactur"  Work.  Other  fractur  paint- 
ings there  were,  too,  although  few  in  number  by  com- 
parison, that  w^ere  devised  altogether  for  ornament  and 
had  no  religious  inspiration  whatever.  Both  sorts  sup- 
plied a  need  in  the  homes  of  their  possessors,  who  had 
practically  nothing  else  in  the  shape  of  pictorial  garni- 
ture. Human  nature  is  the  same  the  world  over,  and 
has  not  changed  from  the  earliest  times  in  its  deeply 
implanted  love  of  ornament.  We  see  this  innate  fond- 
ness for  decoration  equally  in  the  bone  scratchings  of 
the  cave-men  and  the  fractur  paintings  of  the  German 
colonists.  The  resources  for  wall  adornment  in  Colonial 
days  were  not  abundant,  and  in  the  houses  of  the  ma- 
jority they  were  decidedly  scant.  The  English  colo- 
nists, besides  samplers  and  little  pieces  of  simple 
framed  embroidery,  had  a  few  paintings  on  glass  and 


THE  ART  OF  "FRACTUR"  295 

such  edifying  and  gruesomely  moral  prints  as  ' '  Death 
and  the  Lady."  The  German  settlers,  with  a  child-like 
devotion  to  bright  colours,  rebelled  against  the  un- 
broken austerity  of  whitewashed  walls,  and  had  their 
fractur  paintings,  which  were  certainly  more  worth 
while  than  the  gliastly  chromos  and  appalling  crayons 
that  have  now  taken  their  place  in  the  houses  of  simple 
farmer  folk. 

Of  the  secular  pieces  o^  fractur  work,  one  of  the  most 
amusing  is  the  apocalyptic  fantasy,  which  exhibits  in 
the  lower  part  a  behemoth  with  a  murderous  moutli,  a 
blandly  idiotic  simper,  and  a  pointed  tail.  His  forelegs 
are  black  and  his  hind  legs  are  red,  and  his  claws  are 
fearsomely  sharp.  His  body  is  of  a  whitish  yellow 
mottled  with  black  spots,  with  red  veinings  running  be- 
tween the  markings,  and  he  is  evidently  a  long-suffering 
and  patient  creature,  or  else  quite  pachydermatous,  for 
he  seems  not  in  the  least  to  mind  acting  as  a  stage  for 
the  antics  of  the  two  slim  and  jaunty  green-bodied,  red- 
legged  beasts,  although  the  needle-like  claws  of  one  are 
jabbing  his  nose,  which  might  supposedly  be  tender. 

Just  what  may  be  the  full  significance  of  these 
strange  animals  with  pallid  faces  and  rouge-spotted 
cheeks,  furred  or  crocketed  tails  waving  gracefully 
aloft,  and  tow^ering  crowns  set  on  their  heads  at  a  rakish 
angle,  it  would  be  hard  to  say.  It  would  be  equally 
difficult  to  determine  the  meaning  of  the  heart-bearing 
vine  growing  from  the  behemoth's  back,  of  the  red  and 
black  rhapsodic  birds  fluttering  above  the  beasts,  or  of 
the  vixenish  little  parrot  trying  to  pluck  the  tail  feathers 
from  one  of  the  aforesaid  birds.  Surely  there  is  no 
passage  in  the  Apocalypse  by  which  this  pictorial  ca- 
price could  have  been  inspired.    It  has  been  suggested 


29G        EARLY  AAIERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

that  the  theme  might  have  been  derived  from  one  of  the 
"•Lives  of  the  Saints, ' '  but  it  is  scarcely  possible  that  the 
artist  even  knew  of  the  Vitce  Sanctorum.  It  might,  per- 
haps, be  explained  by  some  old  legend  preserved  in  the 
heritage  of  folk-lore. 

Quite  as  vigorous  and  quite  as  ungraceful  is  the 
picture,  about  sixteen  inches  by  twenty  in  size,  of  two 
women.  This  ' '  masterpiece ' '  is  executed  entirely  in  ink 
and  is  altogether  devoid  of  bright  colour,  even  in  the 
nondescript  tree  at  the  left,  with  its  top  divided  like  the 
antennas  of  a  beetle  and  its  fruits  and  flowers  alternating 
with  extreme  reg-ularity.  Judging  from  the  peering, 
inquisitive  expression,  of  the  younger  woman  and  the 
didactic  attitude  of  the  elder,  a  lesson  in  botany  seems 
to  be  going  forward,  based  upon  the  portions  of  a  plant 
which  each  holds  in  her  hands.  The  lower  portion  of 
the  picture  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  upper. 

* '  Fractur  ' '  Work  by  English  Colonists.  The  birth 
certificates  of  the  three  Shinn  children  and  of  Caleb 
Lippincott  are  particularly  interesting  as  showing  the 
development  of  fractur  painting  when  it  got  into  the 
hands  of  English  colonists.  The  Lippincott  painting  is 
still  further  interesting  because  it  depicts  one  of  the 
local  sports,  and  the  fox-hunters  apparently  wear  the 
coats  and  caps  of  the  old  Gloucester  Fox  Hunting  Club, 
which  started  a  few  years  before  the  date  of  the  cer- 
tificate and  afterward  became  the  nucleus  of  Phila- 
delphia's First  City  Troop. 

FoK  THE  Collector.  Now  and  again  these  paintings 
may  be  picked  up  in  the  most  unexpected  places,  and 
are  always  worth  examining  as  specimens  of  an  amus- 
ing and  instinctive  art  episode  and  for  the  light  they 
occasionally  throw  upon  Colonial  history  or  the  man- 
ners of  tlie  colonists.    Li  his  monograph  Mr.  Mercer 


Hi 


;    AlUGAlL.l  >      :)111XN 


>^ 


Hmma^mmm^u     )  iii    fwm 


BIRTH     RECORD.     FRACTUR     PAINTING, 
EXECUTED  BY  ENGLISH  COLONISTS 

Frishnmlh   Collection,   Pennsylvania   Museum   and   School 
of  Indust  rial  Art 


THE  ART  OF  "FRACTUR"  297 

observes  that  previously  the  existence  of  these  illumina- 
tions had  been  *' little  more  than  casually  alluded  to  by 
any  writer."  With  the  exception  of  Mr.  Mercer's  ac- 
count, the  same  is  still  true,  and  comparatively  few 
people  have  seen  or  know  anything  about  them, 
although,  in  the  counties  where  they  were  once 'made, 
it  is  by  no  means  unusual  to  happen  upon  them  in 
second-hand  shops  and  at  the  country  sales  of  household 
effects.  Sometimes  these  specimens  are  of  the  sort  once 
traced  at  Ephrata,  but  more  often  they  are  either  semi- 
secular  (birth  and  marriage  certificates  and  the  like)  or 
else  the  secular  wall  embellishments.  They  are  espe- 
cially numerous  in  the  Mennonite  and  Dunkard  com- 
munities along  the  Perkiomen  and  the  Skippack  Creeks 
and  in  'Berks  and  Bucks.  Besides  the  fractur  paintings 
in  the  collections  previously  mentioned,  there  are  some 
excellent  specimens  in  the  Frishmuth  Collection  in  the 
Pennsylvania  Museum  (Memorial  Hall)  and  School  of 
Industrial  Art,  Philadelphia,  and  also  in  the  collection 
of  William  Springer,  of  Kulpsville,  Montgomery 
County. 

The  old  art  of  fractur  painting  contains  the  seed  of 
suggestion  for  a  modern  development  utilising  the  same 
processes  and  methods.  No  one,  of  course,  would  wish 
to  emulate  the  grotesque  and  cliildish  performances  of 
many  of  the  specimens,  but  a  study  of  the  Ephrata  work 
reveals  many  points  of  substantial  merit  and  a  general 
character  quite  different,  in  conception  and  technique, 
from  that  of  the  small  amount  of  ecclesiastical  illumina- 
tion now  being  performed.  A  resumption  of  this  deli- 
cate pen-and-brush  work  with  coloured  inks  might  be 
suitably  carried  but  in  the  execution  of  such  things 
as  book-plates,  place  cards,  and  certain  types  of 
illustration. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

HAND-BLOCK  FEINTING  ON  FABRICS  AND 

PAPER 

HE  likewise  cuts  neatly  in  Wood  and  Printeth. 
Calicoes."  So  ran  the  end  of  an  advertise- 
ment that  appeared  in  a  Boston  paper,  in  1715, 
setting  forth  the  occupations  of  one  Francis  Dewing, 
lately  come  into  the  Colonies  from  London.  Of  this 
same  Francis  Dewing  we  shall  hear  more  in  a  later 
chapter.  A\liat  concerns  us  here  and  now  is  the  end  of 
his  advertisement,  stating  that  he  "printeth  calicoes," 
a  statement  plainly  indicating  that  the  craft  of  printing 
desig-ns  upon  fabrics  with  hand-blocks  made  of  pear- 
wood,  or  of  some  other  wood,  such  as  box,  holly,  or 
maple,  was  certainly  practised  at  this  date  to  a  sufficient 
extent  to  make  commercial  mention  of  it  worth  while. 
Had  not  the  good  housewives  of  Boston  Town  b.een 
familiar  with  hand-block  printing.  Dewing 's  announce- 
ment that  "he  cuts  neatly  in  Wood  and  Printeth  Cali- 
coes ' '  would  have  been  without  point.  It  is  not  at  all 
impossible,  in  view  of  the  other  activities  he  also  prac- 
tised, that  he  may  occasionally  have  cut  blocks  and  sold 
them  for  the  women  to  do  their  own  printing  from.  A 
competent  housekeeper  would  have  sufficient  knowledge 
of  making  tlie  dyes  it  would  be  necessary  to  use. 

Whether  hand-block  printing  was  done  upon  fabrics 
or  wall-paper,  substantially  the  same  method  was  em- 
ployed. Printing  on  fabrics  was  a  household  craft  and 
might  be  successfully  pursued,  as  occasion  demanded, 
by  any  woman  who  owned  or  could  borrow  the  blocks. 

298 


HAND-BLOCK  PRINTING  299 

No  doubt  blocks  were  lent  from  one  neighbour  to 
another  throughout  whole  communities,  just  as  were  the 
moulds  for  pewter  spoons  and  platters. 

Hand-block  printing  on  paper  for  walls  was  neces- 
sarily somewhat  restricted  in  extent  and  specialised  in 
the  hands  of  a  few  craftsmen.  In  the  majority  of  cases, 
when  wall-paper  was  used,  it  was  of  imported  origin, 
and  the  attempts  at  home  manufacture  in  the  hands  of 
a  country  craftsman  were  primitive  in  the  extreme,  both 
as  regards  colour  and  pattern.  Attempts  at  hand-block 
printing  in  colours  on  paper  for  wall  decoration  were 
not  made  in  America  until  very  late  in  the  eighteenth 
century  or  early  in  the  nineteenth,  and,  as  the  demand 
was  so  limited,  owing  to  the  presence  of  good  imported 
papers  and  the  fact  that  not  nearly  so  much  of  it  would 
be  required  as  of  printed  fabrics,  the  hand-block  print- 
ing of  wall-paper  in  the  Colonial  and  post-Colonial 
periods  is  practically  a  negligible  matter,  so  far  as  any 
great  results  were  concerned.  Nevertheless,  the  speci- 
mens that  have  come  down  to  us  are  amusing  and  show  a 
decided  spirit  of  independence  and  enterprise  on  the 
part  of  American  craftsmen  which  ought  to  afford 
encouragement  to  the  present  craftsworker,  endowed 
with  infinitely  superior  facilities. 

FABRICS 

Materials  Used.  As  we  have  seen  from  Dewing 's 
advertisement,  calico  was  a  favourite  material  for  block 
printing.  Besides  this,  linen,  muslin,  and.  any  kind  of 
cotton  cloth  could  be  used.  Most  of  the  fragments  that 
have  been  preserved  are  either  of  linen  or  calico. 

The  colours  were  made  from  vegetable  dyes,  blues 
and  reds  being  the  usual  favourites. 


300       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

The  blocks  were  generally  about  an  inch  thick  and 
of  any  size  and  shape  the  design  to  be  printed  called  for. 
A  fine,  close-grained  wood  had  to  be  used  so  that  the 
design  could  be  cleanly  cut:  pear,  maple,  box,  holly, 
bass,  or  gum  was  suitable  for  this  purpose.  The  design 
was  carved  in  bold  relief  with  a  smooth  surface  (Fig.  1), 


Fia.   1.     Pearwood  Handblock  with  design  carved  in  sharp  relief.    Frishmuth  Collection, 
Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

or  else  reversed  so  that  the  design  was  incised.  The 
effect  of  the  first  was  to  print  the  design  in  colour  on  the 
fabric;  the  effect  of  the  second  was  to  colour  the  back- 
ground and  reserve  the  design  in  white  or  whatever  was 
the  natural  colour  of  the  fabric  before  the  dye  was 
applied.  Specimens  of  both  are  shown  in  the  plate 
illustrations. 

Processes.     The  design  was  first  drawn  upon  the 


EIGHTEENTH     CENTURY     PENNSYLVANIA     BLUE     AND 
WHITE    HANDBLCJCK    PRINTED    LINEN;    DESIGN    RE- 
SERVED   IN    WHITE    (UPPER);    DESIGN    PRINTED 
IN    BLUE   (LOWER) 

Frishmuth  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School 
of  Industrial  Art 


BOXES  COVERED   Wnil    J'UINTED   PAPER 
Frishmuth  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


SPECIMENS   OF   HAND-BLOCK   PRINTED    BORDERS   FOR   WALL 

PAPER;  EARLY   NINETEENTH   CENTURY 
Frishmuth  Collection,  Pennsvlvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


HAND-BLOCK  PRINTING 


301 


uncut  surface  of  the  block  or  tracecl  upon  paper  and 
pasted  on.  With  a  sharp  knife  it  was  then  cut  out  and 
the  background  gouged  out  to  a  depth  sufficient  to  insure 
a  clear  impression.  Some  of  tlie  blocks  were  large 
(Fig.  1),  while  others  were  very  small  (Fig.  2)  and 
often  of  irregular  shape  (Fig.  1;  Fig.  2,  A  and  B). 
Simple  figures,  geometrical  patterns,  and  flower-and- 
leaf  designs  were  ordinarily  employed.  If  more  than 
one  colour  was  used,  there  had  to  be  an  additional  plate 


Fio.  2.   A,  Obverse  of  small  Handblock.    B,  Section  of  same  showing  irregular  shape  and 
comparative  thickness.     C,  Detail  of  same. 

Frishmuth  Collection,   Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

for  each  colour.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  the  home-done 
block  printing  more  than  one  colour  was  very  rarely 
used. 

'Besides  the  block,  there  was  a  pad  on  which  the  block 
was  charged  before  making  the  impression,  and  this 
pad  was  saturated  with  the  dye,  which  had  been  mixed 
to  about  the  consistency  of  cream  and  spread  on  the  pad 


302       EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

with  a  brush.  A  little  mucilage  or  glue  was  sometimes 
added  to  keep  the  colour  from  spreading,  and  a  mordant 
was  occasionally  needed  to  set  or  fix  the  colour.  The 
material  to  be  printed  was  laid  flat  and  fastened  down, 
and  then  the  impressions  were  made,  moving  the  block 
along  as  the  impressions  covered  the  fabric. 

PAPER 

The  processes  in  use  for  printing  coloured  paper 
were,  as  previously  noted,  substantially  the  same  as 
those  employed  for  fabrics.  The  main  difference  was 
that  the  paper  was,  for  the  sake  of  its  decorative  effect, 
printed  in  several  colours  and  therefore  required  more 
blocks  in  the  process.  It  was  printed  in  very  small 
sections,  no  larger  than  could  be  conveniently  covered 
by  one  block,  or  by  several  adjacent  impressions  from 
one  block,  and  these  small  and  gaily  coloured  pieces 
were  used  for  borders.  Festoons  of  drapery  and  floral 
patterns  were  executed  with  more  concern  for  trenchant 
hues  than  for  refinement.  The  illustrations  will  give  a 
fair  notion  of  the  wall-paper  block  printer's  efforts. 
Printing  paper  in  several  colours  in  this  way  with 
small  blocks  necessarily  consumed  much  time,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  time  required  to  put  small  pieces  on  the 
wall.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  it  was  used 
chiefly  for  borders  only.  The  introduction  of  rollers 
or  cylinders,  with  the  repeat  adjusted  to  one  revolution, 
of  course  w^rought  a  complete  change  in  methods. 

It  is  worth  noting  that  the  old  wall-paper,  both  of 
domestic  and  imported  origin,  was  habitually  used  to 
cover  hat-boxes,  cap-boxes,  band-boxes,  and  numerous 
small  boxes,  which  w^ere  extremely  decorative  in  their 
effect  of  colour  and  pattern. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

EAELY  AMERICAN  WOOD  AND  STONE 

CARVING 

GARVINGr  is  the  outward  manifestation  of  a 
natural  impulse.  It  is  an  impulse  partly  de- 
structive, partly  creative,  and  partly  decorative. 
The  boy  with  a  new  jack-knife  affords  an  epitomised 
evidence  of  the  result  of  innate  promptings,  too  strong 
to  be  resisted,  to  whittle  and  shape  if  the  means  and 
material  be  at  hand.  Wood  first,  and  then  stone,  have 
always  invited  the  craftsman  to  prove  his  prowess  in 
the  decorative  manipulation  of  their  surfaces. 

Examples  of  the  early  American  carver's  handiwork 
in  both  wood  and  stone  are  more  numerous  and  varied 
than  most  of  us,  at  first  thought,  realise.  For  speci- 
mens of  wood  carving,  some  of  it  of  considerable  ex- 
cellence, we  must  look  to  the  furniture  made  by  the 
colonists  from  the  seventeenth  century  onward;  to 
various  small  articles  of  household  utility  that  were 
deemed  worthy  of  ornamentation;  to  the  figureheads 
of  American-built  ships  and,  lastly,  to  such  portions  of 
architectural  woodwork  as  required  or  permitted  carv^ed 
embellishment.  Specimens  of  the  last-named  sort  of 
carving  are  abundant  in  both  exterior  and  interior 
application.  For  examples  of  early  American  stone 
carving  we  must  turn  to  date-stones,  inscriptions,  and 
simple  mural  devices  on  old  houses ;  window  and  door 
trims  and  capitals  of  pillars;  old  milestones  with 
heraldic  devices,  and  last  of  all,  tombstones  and 
monuments. 

303 


304        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

The  interest  attaching  to  these  evidences  of  the 
Colonial  craftsman's  handiwork  in  wood  and  stone  is 
necessarily,  to  a  great  degree,  historical  and  anti- 
quarian, in  the  first  place,  because  in  no  other  field  of 
decorative  activity  do  we  find  more  convincing  testi- 
mony to  the  continuity  and  perpetuation  of  Old- World 
craft  traditions  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and,  in  the 
second  place,  because  they  show  the  extent  of  Colonial 
achievement  and  stimulate  our  appreciation  of  a  native 
craftsmanship  whose  best  accomplishments  we  are  too 
ready  to  attribute  to  an  overseas  origin,  without  taking 
the  pains  to  inform  ourselves  of  the  real  facts  concern- 
ing them.  Despite  the  comparatively  limited  scope  of 
any  modern  application  that  can  be  made  of  these  Colo- 
nial precedents  and  patterns,  there  are,  nevertheless, 
not  a  few  points  in  which  they  are  pregnant  with  sug- 
gestions that  we  shall  do  well  to  study  and  ponder,  both 
in  the  matter  of  technique  of  execution  and  in  the  uses 
to  which  carved  embellishment  was  put.  They  also 
show,  in  most  cases,  notwithstanding  certain  minor 
crudities  that  occasionally  appear,  the  strong  innate 
sense  of  refined  proportion  so  eminently  characteristic 
of  much  of  the  work  done  in  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 
enth  centuries,  particularly  the  latter.  Furthermore, 
they  materially  increase  our  esteem  for  the  average 
ability  of  the  Colonial  artisan,  and  no  account  of  the 
early  arts  and  crafts  would  be  complete  if  it  did  not 
include  some  notice  of  the  labours  of  both  wood  and 
stone  carvers. 

WOOD  CARVING 

Processes.  Before  specifically  directing  attention  to 
the  several  fields  in  which  carved  ornamentation  was 
customarily  employed,  it  is  desirable  to  explain  the 


'-^ier-' 


CAKVED,  PAINTED  AND  GILT  CllEULJiS  A.ND  BUUK,  t.1710,  UliGA.N 

GALLERY,   GLOREA.   DEE   PHILADELPHE\ 

Courtpsy  of  Rector  and  Vestry  of  Gloria  Dei,  Philadelphia 


CAK\ED   (AEUDUOK    PANEL,    INDEPENDENCE   CHA.MHEK, 
STATE   HOUSE,    PHILADELPIHA 


WOODEN   STATUE   OF   GENERAL   WASHINGTON, 

CARVED  BY  WILLIAM  RUSH  OF  PHILADELPHIA, 

STATE   HOUSE.  PHILADELPHIA 


WOOD  AND  STONE  CARVING 


305 


varieties  of  carving  methods  and  their  points  of 
difference. 

"Modelled"  carving  exhibits  the  design  standing 
out  in  well-moulded  relief  from  a  surrounding  back- 
ground that  has  been  lowered  by  gouge  and  chisel 
(Fig.  1,  A  and  B ;  Fig.  2,  A  and  B^. 

Close  akin  to  modelled  carving — indeed,  it  is  only  a 
further  development  of  it — is  ''carving  in  the  round"  ; 
that  is  to  say,  carving  in  which  the  figures,  cleanly 
undercut,  stand  well  forth  from  their  ground  (Fig.  3) 


Fig.  1.     A,  Side  view.  Wooden  Handle  of  Pennsylvania  German  Pie  Edge  Cutter  in 
"Modelled"  car\'ing.     B,  Reverse  Side  of  same. 

Friahmuth  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial  Art. 

or  else  stand  altogether  clear  of  it,  being  supported  by 
some  suitable  projection  from  the  rear,  from  below  or 
from  above.  Excellent  examples  of  carving  in  the 
round  are  ships'  figureheads  and  carved  finials  or  pend- 
ants of  any  description. 

"Fl.vt"  car\^ing  shows  a  design  whose  surface  13 
flush  with  the  uncarved  surface  of  the  piece  of  wood 
(Fig.  4)  on  which  it  is  wrought.  The  relief  is  secured 
by  a  *'sunk"  or  sharply  gouged-out  groundwork,  and 
the  edges  of  the  figures  composing  the  dosi.gn  nre  not 
rounded  off  or  modified  in  any  way,  but  are  left  sharp 
and  rectangular. 

20 


306 


EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


''Scratch"  carving  is  just  the  reverse  of  the  forms 
of  carving  more  commonly  practised,  in  that  the  design, 
usually  of  simple  character,  is  vigorously  and  sharply 
incised  (Fig.  4). 

Kinds  of  Wood  Used.  White  pine,  poplar,  oak, 
mahogany,  and  walnut  were  the  woods  most  used  by 
the  American  craftsmen  for  carving  purposes. 

White  pine  was  the  wood  used  almost  exclusively  for 
purposes  of  architectural  carving,  and  it  was  usually 


r\r\ 


Fig.  2. 


A  and  B,  Carved  Details  from  the  John  Penn  Instrument  Cupboard  or  PresB  in 

the  Philadelphia  Library,  1739. 

Courtesy  of  the  Library  Company  of  Philadelphia. 


protected  afterwards  by  a  coat  of  paint.  In  a  few 
instances  poplar  was  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

Oak  was  used  by  the  seventeenth-century  carvers  for 
both  furniture  and  architectural  embellishment.  Ex- 
amples of  both  are  shown. 

Walnut  was  used  in  the  eighteenth  century  almost 
exclusively  for  furniture,  but  occasional  instances  of  its 


WOOD  AND  STONE  CARVING 


307 


architectural  use  may  be  found.  It  was  also  used  for 
small  objects  of  household  utility  (Fig.  1,  A  and  B). 

Mahogany  was  used  solely  for  furniture ;  with  rare 
exceptions  for  other  purposes. 

Other  woods  than  the  four  mentioned  were  some- 
times met  with,  but  not  sufficiently  often  to  merit  special 
notice. 

Furniture.  So  far  as  carved  furniture  is  concerned, 
the  best  seventeenth-century  examples  are  to  be  found 
in  the  oaken  pieces  of  New  England  origin,  which  are. 


Fio.  3.     Carved  Pine  Capital  of  Pilaster,  undercut  or  carved  in  the  round,  Eighteenth 
Century.     Collection  of  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society. 

to  all  intents,  the  same  as  the  articles  of  contemporary 
English  manufacture,  save  that,  in  the  English  work, 
there  is,  as  a  rule,  greater  nicety  of  finish.  In  the  Bolles 
Collection,  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New 
York  City ;  in  the  Boston  ^luseum,  and  also  in  several 
smaller  and  private  collections  may  be  seen  excellent 
specimens  of  this  seventeenth-century  American  carv- 
ing in  oak.  It  should  be  added  that  the  Bolles  Collection 
is  especially  comprehensive  in  this  respect  and  affords 
typical  examples  of  modelled,  flat,  and  scratch  carving. 


308 


EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


The  execution  of  some  of  the  carving  is  so  exactly 
similar  to  that  of  English  pieces,  both  in  point  of 
technique  and  pattern,  that  its  American  authorship  can 
be  detennined  only  by  the  fact  that  it  is  wrought  on 
American  oak.  It  is  but  natural  that  semi-medireval 
(Fig.  4)  and  Kenaissance  traditions  of  wood  carving 
should  be  thus  faithfully  perpetuated  on  American  soil, 
for  the  craftsmen  who  did  the  work  were  English  to  the 
core,  no  matter  on  which  side  of  the  Atlantic  they  hap- 
pen to  have  been  born.  Indeed,  not  only  in  the  case  of 
wood  car^^ing,  but  also  in  most  of  the  other  crafts  prac- 
tised in  the  Colonies,  the  obvious  continuity  of  tradi- 
tional methods  and  processes  forcibly  brings  home  the 


FiQ.  4.     Motif  from  Hftdley  Cheat  ehowing  "flat"  carving  with  tendrila  wrought  in 
"scratch"  carving.     New  England,  late  Seventesnth    Century. 

BoUes  Collection,  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York  Citj-. 

realisation  that,  after  all,  we,  through  our  American 
English  forefathers — Washington  and  Adams,  though 
the  staunchest  Americans,  considered  themselves  also 
Englishmen  to  their  dying  day — have  quite  as  ample 
and  honourable  a  traditional  background  as  our  con- 
temporary British  English  cousins,  even  though  we  may 
sometimes  have  been  oblivious  of  it  and  withheld  our 
appreciation. 

The  designs  employed  were,  to  all  intents,  identically 
the  same  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  although  certain 
local  preferences  for  one  pattern  or  another  are  ob- 
servable in  the  New  England  work,  just  as  they  were 


WOOD  AND  STONE  CARVING  309 

in  different  parts  of  England,  and  occasionally  we  meet 
with  a  design  that  has  no  exact  counterpart  in  English 
work,  albeit  the  manner  of  execution  does  not  differ 
from  the  customary  processes.  A  notable  instance  of 
such  a  local  peculiarity  of  design  (Fig.  4)  is  found  on 
the  "Hadley  chests."  These  chests  are  so  called 
because  a  number  of  them  seem  to  have  been  made  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  town  of  Hadley,  in  Massachusetts. 
The  device  used  for  the  decoration  consists  of  a  crudely 
drawn  leaf  and  flower,  carried  out  in  the  requisite 
number  of  repeats,  wrought  in  flat  carving,  while 
numerous  small  scrolls  or  tendrils,  the  veining  of  leaves, 
and  the  divisions  of  petals  appear  in  scratch  carving 
(Fig.  4).  This  seventeenth-century  method  of  carving, 
characteristic  of  the  Stuart  period  in  mobiliary  par- 
lance, continued  to  be  practised  during  the  fore  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  other  early  American  manifestation  of  carving 
on  furniture  is  to  be  found  on  the  walnut,  cherry,  bilsted, 
and  mahogany  articles  in  the  Chippendale,  Hepplewhite, 
Sheraton,  Phyfe,  and  Empire  styles,  the  best  of  which 
were  made  in  New  England,  Philadelphia,  and  New 
York,  where  the  most  expert  chair  and  cabinet  makers 
and  carvers  seem  to  have  been  established.  In  these 
cases  the  carving  is  chiefly  of  the  modelled  or  moulded 
variety,  sometimes  in  the  round,  and  rivals  in  excellence 
the  work  done  by  the  English  cancers  of  the  same  period. 
Those  who  wish  to  investigate  the  subject  of  furniture 
in  detail  are  referred  to  ''The  Practical  'Book  of  Period 
Furniture,"  by  the  present  authors,  and  issued  by  the 
same  house  as  this  volume. 

Small  Articles  of  Domestic  Utility.  Small  wooden 
objects  of  household  use  were  now  and  again  dignified 


310        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

with  carved  adornment.  Such  articles  are  more  likely 
to  be  met  with  among  the  domestic  effects  of  the  Dutch 
and  German  colonists  than  among  the  goods  of  colo- 
nists of  English  or  Welsh  extraction.  Good  examples 
of  these  ornate  minor  domestic  accessories  are  to  be 
found  among  such  articles  as  the  carved  hanging  spoon 
racks  or  lepel-borties  of  the  Dutch  housewives,  the 
brush-and-comb  holders  that  hung  beside  the  pumps  in 
the  wash-sheds  or  out-kitchens  of  farmhouses  among 
the  Germans  in  Pennsylvania,  the  razor  boxes  and  shav- 
ing boxes,  and  the  kitchen  implements  of  both  Dutch 
and  Germans,  such  as  butter  moulds,  tankards  for  cider, 
and  the  handles  of  pie  markers.  An  excellent  speci- 
men of  this  German  peasant  domestic  wood  carving 
appears  on  the  handle  of  the  pie  marker  (Fig.  1,  A 
and  B),  from  the  Frishmuth  Collection  in  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Museum  of  Industrial  Art,  Fairmount  Park, 
Philadelphia.  The  design  is  characteristically  German, 
and  the  carving  is  carefully  executed  and  probably 
represents  the  winter  evening  industry  of  a  farmer  with 
a  jack-knife,  sitting  in  the  light  of  a  roaring  wood 
kitchen  fire. 

Shipwrights'  Caeving.  It  was  a  matter  of  no  small 
pride  among  seafaring  men  and  merchants  in  Colonial 
times  and  in  the  early  days  of  our  national  existence — • 
in  fact,  until  the  advent  of  steam  put  an  end  to  the 
picturesque  side  of  maritime  life — to  have  their  ships, 
barques,  and  smaller  sailing  craft  adorned  with  elab- 
orately carved,  painted,  and  gilt  figureheads.  The 
figurehead  gave  a  stamp  of  individuality  and,  as  a  thing 
almost  alive,  seemed  to  personify  the  character  of  the 
hull  and  rigging  behind  and  above  it.  Both  pains  and 
expense  were  lavished  upon  the  carving  of  these  pieces, 


CARVED  WOODEN  PORTRAIT  BUST  OF  GENERAL 
WASHINGTON    BY   SAMIEL  McINTIRE 
Cnvirtpsy  nf  Essox   Inititiito,   Salem,   Massachusetts 


CARVED    OAK    FIREPLACE    BEAM     FROM    HOUSE    BUILT    BY    PHINEAS 
PEMBERTON,   BOLTEN  FARM,   FALLSIXGTON  ROAD,   BUCKS, 

PENNSYLVANIA 

Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society 


CAl;\i:i)    WOOD    BUTTER    MOULD 

Frishniuth  Collection,  Pennsylvania  Mu- 
seum and  School  of  Industrial  Art 


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WOOD  AND  STONE  CARVING  311 

and  they  were  boldly  wrought  in  the  round  with  a  re- 
freshing degree  of  lively  spirit.  Their  design  and  execu- 
tion alike  do  credit  to  their  nameless  and  forgotten 
carvers,  to  whom  we  cannot  help  feeling  that  we  owe  a 
debt  of  gratitude  whenever,  in  old  seaport  towns  of  our 
Atlantic  coast  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  ancient  ship- 
yards, we  come  upon  one  of  these  relics  of  a  bygone  day, 
removed  from  its  former  place  of  honour  and  doing 
duty  as  an  adorimient  in  some  unfrequented  corner. 
The  least  we  can  do  is  to  remember  with  thankfulness 
the  men  who  made  them  and  the  wholesome  spirit  in 
which  they  wrought.  Somewhat  akin  to  the  Avork  on 
the  figureheads,  though  not  so  fine  and  executed  for  a 
purely  commercial  and  land-lubber  purpose,  was  the 
carving  of  Indians  and  other  figures  to  stand  by  way  of 
advertisement  before  the  doors  of  tobacconists'  shops. 
These  figures  belong  to  the  nineteenth  century.  Some 
of  them  display  considerable  excellence  of  craftsman- 
ship in  their  execution. 

Architectural  CARV^NG.  Architectural  opportuni- 
ties for  wood  carving  were  abundant  and  were  not 
neglected.  In  the  earliest  Colonial  period  the  oaken 
beams,  posts,  and  studs  of  the  half-timbered  New  Eng- 
land houses  (the  same  that  were  afterwards  encased  in 
clapboard  coats)  (see  **The  Architecture  of  Colonial 
America,"  H.  D.  Eberlein,  1915,  p.  — )  were  embellished 
with  stopped  chamfer  edges  and  hand-wrought  moulds 
executed  in  a  bold  and  virile  manner  that  clearly  bo- 
spoke  the  persistence  of  the  mediaeval  wood-worker's 
methods.  Brackets  and  corbels  and  the  pendants  or 
drops  from  the  corners  of  overhangs  were  decorated  in 
the  same  lusty  fashion. 

Nor  was  the  architectural  application  of  the  wood- 


312        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

carver 's  art  in  seventeenth-century  America  confined  to 
Kew  England.  In  some  of  the  old  houses  in  the  other 
Colonies  were  to  be  found  creditable  examples  of  crafts- 
manship in  this  direction.  One  of  them — and  there  were 
others — is  shown  in  a  plate  illustration.  It  is  a  piece  of 
oak  and  is  wrought  in  the  modelled  type  of  bold  relief, 
displaying  such  characteristics  of  technique  as  one  is 
accustomed  to  find  on  the  Jacobean  cupboards,  panelled 
chests,  and  wainscot  chairs  of  English  make.  It  bears 
the  initials  of  Phineas  Pemberton  and  the  date  of  the 
house  he  built  for  himself  in  1683  at  Bolton  Farm,  near 
Bristol,  in  Bucks,  Pennsylvania. 

With  the  increasing  popularity  of  Georgian  archi- 
tectural amenities  during  the  eighteenth  century,  how- 
ever, the  wood-carver 's  art  was  called  more  frequently 
into  play  for  purposes  of  both  exterior  and  interior 
ornamentation,  and,  at  the  same  time,  was  given  a  wider 
scope  for  displaying  the  niceties  of  craftsmanship.  It 
has,  unfortunately,  been  the  custom  of  a  great  many 
people  either  to  assert  or  assume  that  most  of  the  finely 
wrought  woodwork  in  our  more  ornate  Georgian  houses 
came  from  England,  because  they  have  heard,  perhaps, 
that  such  was  the  case  in  some  one  particular  instance. 
Nothing  could  be  more  unjust  to  the  reputation  and 
memory  of  our  own  Colonial  craftsmen.  An  interesting 
bit  of  tangible  and  eloquent  evidence  of  the  American 
wood-carver's  ability  is  the  instrument  cupboard  or 
press  made,  in  1739,  to  hold  the  air-pump  and  other 
scientific  apparatus  presented,  in  1738,  to  the  Library 
Company  of  Philadelphia  by  the  Honourable  John  Penn. 

Although  a  piece  of  movable  furniture,  this  press 
is  of  such  distinctly  architectural  character  that  it  is 
to  be  ranked  in  the  category  of  ''architects'  furni- 


WOOD  AND  STONE  CARVING  313 

ture,"^  an  important  division  of  mobiliary  equip- 
ment in  the  Queen  Anne-Eaiiy  Georgian  period,  and 
it  is,  therefore,  appropriate  that  it  should  be  discussed 
in  this  connexion.  It  was  wholly  designed  and  made  in 
Philadelphia,  and  all  the  circumstances  anent  its  con- 
struction are  dulv  recorded  in  the  minutes  of  the 
Library  Company.  The  carving  of  this  press  is  an  en- 
during tribute  to  the  skill  of  the  artisan  or  artisans 
who  executed  it,  and  any  man  who  could  accomplish 
such  a  piece  of  work  could,  beyond  all  question,  have 
done  any  of  the  architectural  wood-carving  in  the  State 
House  or  in  any  other  of  our  Georgian  buildings,  public 
or  private,  no  matter  how  elaborate  it  is.  With  this 
incontrovertible  proof  of  the  ability  of  at  least  one 
wood-carver — there  were  doubtless  other  wood-carvers 
in  the  Colonies  every  whit  as  apt  as  he — there  is  a 
strong  presumption  in  favour  of  the  American  crafts- 
man that  the  beautiful  carved  architectural  woodwork 
of  our  Georgian  houses  and  public  edifices  was  the 
product  of  his  hands,  except  in  cases  where  the  records 
show  that  the  carvings  were  fetched  from  England. 
Certain  it  is  that  the  examples  of  architectural  carving 
of  undoubted  American  origin  compare  very  favour- 
ably with  the  work  we  know  to  have  been  brought  over 
from  the  Mother-Country. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth,  one  wood-carver  who  ably 
upheld  the  traditions  and  maintained  the  reputation  of 
the  American  craftsman  was  Samuel  ^Iclntire,  of 
Salem,  master  carpenter,  wood-carver,  and  architect. 
Not  only  did  his  work  compare  more  than  favourably 
with   any   that  was   executed    in   either   England   or 

*v.  "Practical  Book  of  Period  Furniture":  Eberlein  and  McClure. 


314 


EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 


\merica  in  bis  own  day,  but  it  bas  stood  tbe  test  of 
time  and  bas  never  bad  to  yield  tbe  palm  for  excellence 
to  anv  work  executed  since.  Tbougb  ranked  as  one  of 
tbe  foremost  arcliitects  of  bis  generation,  and  tbougb 
bis  work  bad  far  more  tban  a  local  influence  on  our 
domestic  arcbitecture,^  wood-carving  seems  always  to 
have  been  bis  first  love,  and  tbe  fame  of  bis  bouses 
rests  on  tbe  beauty  of  tbeir  embellisbments— '  Hbeir 
doorways,  window  frames,  cornices,  gate  posts,  and 
tbeir  incomparable  interior  w^oodwork"— ratber  tban 
on  any  otber  quality.  In  summing  up  bis  work,  Mr. 
Dyer  says  of  Mclntire : ' '  He  was  tbe  artistic  descendant 
of  Inigo  Jones,  Sir  Cbristopber  Wren,  Grinling  Gibbon, 
and  tbe  Brothers  Adam;  be  was  also  tbeir  peer  in 
originality  as  well  as  in  fidelity  to  tbe  best  classic  tra- 
ditions. More  cbaste  and  severe  tban  Wren  and  Gibbon, 
be  was  more  fanciful  tban  Adam.  Perbaps  it  was  bis 
very  freedom  from  tbe  scbools  tbat  gave  bim  faitb  in 
bis  own  genius  to  do  tbe  tbing  tbat  best  suited  given 
conditions,  and  tbis  faitb  seldom  led  bim  astray." 

Mclntire  also  tried  bis  band  at  sculpture  to  some 
extent,  and  executed  in  wood  several  medallion  like- 
nesses of  General  Washington  and  a  bust  of  Governour 
Wintbrop.  Tbe  Washington  medallion  was  first  de- 
signed and  carved  in  1805  as  a  decoration  for  tbe 
western  gateway  of  Washington  Square,  in  Salem, 
Massachusetts,  and  w^as  fashioned  ' '  after  drawings 
from  life  made  by  Mclntire  during  Washington's  visit 
to  Salem  in  1789." 

Another  carver  of  signal  ability  was  William  Rush, 
of  Philadelphia,  bom  July  4,  1756.  He  was  appren- 
ticed to  Edward  Cutbush,  ' '  the  then  best  carver  of  his 

*  See  "  The  Architecture  of  Colonial  America,"  H.  D.  Eberlein,  1915. 


CARVED  AND  PAINTED  PRESS  OR  CTPBOARD  FOR  SCIENTIFIC  INSTRU- 
MENTS,   PRESENTED    TO    THE    PHILADELPHIA    LIBRARY    BY    THE 
HONOURABLE  JOHN   PENN,    173S 
Courtesy  of  Library  Company  of  Philadelphia 


WOOD  AND  STONE  CARVING  315 

day,"  in  Philadelphia.  He  specialised  in  carving 
figureheads  for  ships  and  his  work  elicited  such  uni- 
versal admiration  both  in  British  and  in  foreign  parts 
that  he  received  orders  from  England.  His  best  known 
and,  perhaps,  his  finest  piece  of  wooden  sculpture  is  the 
statue  of  Washington  in  the  State  House  in  Philadel- 
phia. 

The  motifs  employed  in  the  Georgian  architectural 
wood-carving  were  chiefly  of  classic  provenance  or  else 
of  Renaissance  or  Baroque  inspiration,  tempered  by  a 
classic  spirit  of  interpretation.  They  included  roses, 
rosettes,  foliated  scrolls,  acanthus  leaves  (Fig.  3),  eg^ 
and  dart  courses,  urns  with  flame  or  cover  tops,  swags 
and  drops  of  flowers  or  drapery,  cockle-shells,  pine- 
apples, masques,  and,  towards  the  end  of  the  period, 
some  of  the  more  delicate  Pompeian  devices  imported 
into  English  usage  by  the  Brothers  Adam.  Nor  are 
attempts  wanting  to  emulate  occasionally  the  more 
florid  conceptions  of  the  Grinling  Gibbon  school.  W^e 
must  also  include  in  our  chronicle  of  wood-carving  the 
chubby-cheeked  cherubs  whose  heads  and  wings  often 
figured  in  the  embellishment  of  Colonial  churches  and 
were  usually  placed  somewhere  near  the  pulpit  or  the 
organ  loft.  In  nearly  every  case  the  old  American 
wood-carver's  work  is  executed  with  a  refreshing  bold- 
ness and  freedom  of  sweep.  Heraldic  carving,  too,  w^as 
practised  to  some  degree,  and  in  more  than  one  place 
the  royal  arms  of  England,  carved  and  displayed  dur- 
ing our  Colonial  period,  are  still  carefully  treasured. 

The  objects  upon  which  this  architectural  wood- 
carving  was  bestowed  by  way  of  enrichment  were  the 
brackets  beneath  stair  treads,  mantels  and  overmantels, 
pediments  and  overdoor  adornments  in  general,  door 


31 G        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

and  window  trims,  cornices,  the  capitals  of  pillars  and 
pilasters  (Fig.  3),  and  whatever  architectural  features 
or  details  were  fitting  subjects  for  ornamentation. 
Carving  on  the  exteriors  of  buildings  was,  of  course, 
not  as  abundant  as  carving  for  interior  adornment,  but 
it  was  by  no  means  uncommon.  Many  old  cornices, 
capitals,  finial  urns  on  the  posts  of  balustrades  and 
mas(iues  still  compel  our  sincere  admiration.  In  reck- 
oning the  achievements  of  the  w^ood-carver  we  must 
remember  to  make  a  distinction  between  carving  in 
wood  and  modelling  in  compo  w^hen  we  come  to  examine 
some  of  the  very  elaborate  mantels  of  the  late  Georgian 
period.  Not  a  few  of  these  mantels  displaying  exquisite 
Pompeian  motifs  of  adornment  which  at  first  appear  to 
be  carved  are,  in  reality,  moulded  in  compo  and  painted 
after  being  set  in  place. 

STONE    CARVING 

Processes.  The  processes  used  in  stone  carving 
were  virtually  analogous  to  those  employed  in  the  carv- 
ing of  wood,  or  sufficiently  so,  at  any  rate,  to  make  the 
same  set  of  definitions  answer  in  indicating  the  treat- 
ment of  both  substances. 

Kinds  of  Stone  Used.  The  kinds  of  stone  used  by 
the  Colonial  and  early  post-Colonial  stone-carvers  were 
marble,  sandstone,  limestone,  slate,  soapstone,  and, 
occasionally,  granite  and  mica  stone. 

Marble  served  both  for  architectural  work^  espe- 
cially in  the  later  period,  and  for  carved  tombstones 
and  mural  tablets. 

Sandstone  and  limestone  were  employed  for  both 
architectural  and  mortuary  w^ork,  but  chiefly  for  the 
latter. 


WOOD  AND  STONE  CARVING  317 

Soapstone  and  slate  were  mainly  used  for  tomb- 
stones. Slate  could  be  used  only  for  scratch  carving 
and  inscriptions. 

Granite  was  but  sliglitly  used,  and  tliat  for  archi- 
tectural purposes. 

Mica  stone  was  occasionally  used  in  Pennsylvania, 
both  for  rude  architectural  work  and  for  tombstones, 
but  it  was  not  a  kindly  medium  for  carving. 

Architectural  Carving.  Two  things  militated 
against  any  extensive  architectural  development  of  the 
stone-carver's  art  among  the  craftsmen  of  the  Colonial 
and  post-Colonial  periods.  The  first  was  the  common 
lack  of,  or  at  least  the  difficulty  of  obtaining,  suitable 
stone  as  a  medium  in  which  the  sculptor  might  conveni- 
ently express  his  cunning.  The  second  was  the  fact 
that,  in  the  majority  of  our  Georgian  buildings,  wood 
was  ordinarily  substituted  for  the  stone  or  marble  that 
was  often  used  in  England,  so  that  there  was  little 
opportunity  for  the  stone-carver  to  develop  his  craft 
in  its  application  to  the  exterior  embellishment  of  build- 
ings, and  little  encouragement  for  him  to  attempt  to 
do  so. 

In  New  England  the  native  granite  did  not  offer  a 
kindly  medium  for  the  art  of  the  stone-carver,  and  it  is 
not  surprising,  therefore,  that  there  are  few  examples 
of  this  sort  of  craftsmanship  to  be  found  upon  any  of 
the  New  England  structures  dating  from  the  Colonial 
period. 

In  New  York  and  the  Middle  C^olonies  the  presence 
of  sandstone  was  occasionally  taken  advantage  of,  and 
a  few  keystones  and  capitals  were  executed. 

In  Pennsylvania,  also,  one  now  and  then  finds  ex- 
amples of  attempts  at  carving  the  native  mica  stone. 


318        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

The  most  notable  instance  of  this  crude  work,  neces- 
sarily crude  owing  to  the  intractability  of  the  material, 
is  to  be  seen  on  the  Bartram  house,  at  Bartram's 
Gardens,  Kingsessing,  Philadelphia.  There  a  date-stone 
in  the  western  gable  bears  the  inscription  ♦'  eEO::iQZ 
[God  save]  John  and  Ann  Bartram,  1731"  (the  year 
in  which  John  Bartram  added  to  the  structure  origi- 
nally standing  on  the  site).  On  the  river  front  of  the 
house  are  roughly  wrought  Ionic  capitals  to  the  pillars 
of  the  portico  (a  later  addition),  and  carved  window 
trims  with  an  interesting  inscription  beneath  one  of 
the  windows : 

It  is  God  alone 
Almyty  Lord 
The  Holy  One 
By  me  ador'd 

John  Bartram  1770 

Quaint  little  scrolls  fill  in  the  otherwise  vacant  spaces, 
as  they  also  do  on  the  earlier  date-stone  in  the  gable. 

Other  specimens  of  carving  in  this  native  mica  stone 
are  to  be  found  in  the  milestones  set  out  in  1703  along 
the  Lancaster  Pike  bearing  Penn's  arms  in  bold  relief 
on  a  sunk  ground,  and  on  date-stones  and  wall  devices, 
such  as  the  tulip  and  heart  or  other  mystic  emblems, 
among  the  Pennsylvania  Germans. 

Late  in  the  Colonial  period  and  in  the  early  post- 
Colonial  period,  architectural  carving  in  marble  came 
more  and  more  into  fashion,  and  was  wrought  in  the 
manner  in  which  we  of  to-day  are  accustomed  to  seeing 
it  treated.  It  was  at  this  time,  too,  that  some  of  the 
exquisite  marble  mantels  of  Adam  pattern  were  carved. 
Others,  also,  were  wrought  in  Empire  designs  at  a 
slightly  later  date. 


CARVED    MULBERRY;    OVER- 
DOOR     DEVICE    FROM    MUL- 
BERRY    CASTLE,    SOUTH 
CAROLINA,    171.5 
Courtesy    of    Charles    Brendon, 
Esq.,  New  York  City 


CARVING    IN     SIONL    UNDER    WINDOW,     HAUTKA.M     1H)1>L 
PHILADELPHIA,   WROUGHT    UV   ,J()HN    HAKTRAM, 


KING.-~L>>U\e., 
1770 


,v^^._ 


£^ 


^: 


i''' 


EARLY    EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY   "SCRATCH- 
CARVED    TOMBSTONE,    ST.  THOMAS'S 
CHURCHYARD,  WHITEMARSH  VALLEY, 
PENNSVTAAXTA 


,v 


Va^ 


V- /^:> 


EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY   CARVED   TOMBSTONE,   NEWPORT, 

RHODE  ISLAND 
Courtesy  of  Henry  Oothout  Milliken,  Esq. 


WOOD  AND  STONE  CARVING  319 

Tombstone  Carving.  If  the  early  American  stone- 
carver  was  limited  in  his  architectural  scope,  he  made 
up  for  his  lack  of  opportunity  in  that  field  when  he 
was  turned  loose  on  tombstones  and  mural  tablets. 
Every  old  churchyard  and  burial  ground  in  the  country 
is  full  of  the  evidences  of  his  prowess  with  the  mallet 
and  chisel.  The  choice  of  subjects,  to  be  sure,  was  some- 
what circumscribed — cherubs,  death's  heads,  skulls  and 
crossbones,  and  hour-glasses,  with  and  without  wings, 
seem  to  have  been  the  universal  favourites — but  he 
managed  to  inject  not  a  little  variety  into  his  inter- 
pretations of  these  lugubrious  emblems  of  mortality. 
There  were  dolorous  cherubs  and  merry  cherubs ;  lean 
cherubs  and  fat,  mumpy-cheeked  celestial  youngsters 
joyously  fluttering  their  robust  little  wings;  cherubs 
with  curly  hair  and  cherubs  with  head  dresses,  and,  now 
and  again,  cherubs  with  their  ambrosial  locks  done 
up  in  puffs  that  would  have  put  the  most  proficient 
Parisian  friseur  to  unending  and  envious  shame.  Occa- 
sionally the  cherubs  were  dour  of  visage,  and  there  is 
one  creature,  done  in  scratch  or  incised  carving,  on  a 
mica  stone  in  St.  Thomas's  Churchyard,  Wliitemarsh, 
Pennsylvania,  with  a  frilled  head  dress  and  three- 
cornered  ears,  whose  aspect  is  positively  devilish.  No 
wonder  Lord  Howe's  soldiers,  when  they  were  en- 
camped on  St.  Thomas 's  Hill,  used  this  vixenish  object 
as  a  target  for  pistol  practice.  The  majority  of  cherubs, 
however,  were  apt  to  be  phlegmatic  and  stupid  looking. 

In  some  cases  tombstones  were  bordered  with  dec- 
orative bands  of  fruit,  flowers,  leaves,  and,  now  and 
then,  other  motifs.  The  tulip  was  a  favourite  flower, 
and  its  use  was  not  restricted  to  the  Pennsylvania  Ger- 


320        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

mans,  for  instances  of  its  employment  have  been  found 
in  parts  of  New  England  for  tombstone  enrichment. 

In  a  great  number  of  cases  the  lettering  on  tomb- 
stones was  of  rare  excellence,  and  the  letters  were 
shaped  with  such  delicacy  and  beauty  of  proportion 
that  they  are  carefully  copied  to-day  by  architects.  Of 
course,  the  lettering  was  not  universally  good  and  some- 
times it  was  exceedingly  poor,  but,  as  a  rule,  it  was  at 
least  creditable ;  and,  indeed,  it  had  need  to  be,  for  when 
soapstone  or  slate  were  used,  materials  that  did  not 
readily  lend  themselves  to  sculpture,  the  lettering  was 
the  only  decoration. 

As  an  agreeable  change  from  cherubs  and  death's 
heads,  numerous  old  tombstones  exhibit  armorial  bear- 
ings, which  it  was  comparatively  easy  to  execute  credit- 
ably when  the  material  of  the  monument  was  either 
marble  or  sandstone.  Urns  also  enjoyed  considerable 
vogue  as  motifs  of  adornment. 

Mural  tablets  in  churches  usually  displayed  a  far 
greater  nicety  of  finish  than  the  stones  that  stood  in  the 
open.  The  devices  employed  for  their  embellishment 
were  of  the  same  general  character  as  those  already 
mentioned — heraldic  devices,  urns,  cherubs,  and  hour- 
glasses. 


CHAPTER  XV 

EARLY  AMERICAN  LACE 

CONTRIBUTED  BY  MABEL  FOSTER  BAIXBRIDGE 

IPSWICH,  situated  on  the  Massachusetts  coast,  some 
thirty  miles  north  of  Boston,  is  the  one  place  in 
the  territory  of  the  present  United  States  where, 
in  the  early  days,  bobbin  or  pillow  lace  makers  settled. 
That  they  came  from  the  Midland  Counties,  north  of 
London,  is  proved  both  by  the  town  records  and  by  the 
kind  of  lace  that  they  made,  a  lace  peculiar  to  the  middle 
shires  of  England.  The  term  '^ pillow  lace"  is  applied 
to  the  particular  kind  of  lace  that  was  made  on  a 
peculiarly  shaped  cushion  or  pillow  which,  along  with 
the  other  implements  used  in  the  craft  of  lace  making, 
is  described  below. 

The  settlers'  hands  were  empty  of  implements  to 
ply  their  craft  when  they  came  to  America,  but  were 
skilled  as  are  only  the  hands  of  generations  of  lace 
makers.  Nothing  thwarted,  they  made  pillows,  a  sort 
known  as  a  bolster  pillow,  about  twenty-five  inches  in 
circumference  and  twelve  inches  long.  These  cylin- 
drical pillows  they  stuffed  with  hay,  pounded  very 
hard,  using  a  heavy,  hand-woven  linen  as  a  covering. 
A  stocking  leg  was  slipped  over  the  pillow  to  keep  it 
clean.  The  homespun  and  the  stocking  were  gathered 
at  the  ends,  but  a  hole  was  alwavs  left  so  that  the  fingers 
could  be  inserted  to  turn  the  pillow.  Into  those  holes 
the  fastidious  pressed  lemon  verbena,  lavender,  and 
other  sweet-scented  herbs.  The  pillow,  when  not  in  use, 
rested  in  a  basket  that  kept  it  from  rolling.    The  pillow 

21  321 


322        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

in  tlie  illustration  is  in  an  old  Malay  measuring  basket. 
This  pillow  was  used  by  Lydia  Lord  Lakeman,  who  was 
born  in  1781.  On  it  lie  some  of  the  old  parchment  pat- 
terns, and  the  pins  are  rusted  in  with  age.  A  little  bag 
was  pinned  on  the  back  to  hold  the  lace  as  it  was  finished. 
This  little  bag,  and  a  cover  that  was  always  thrown 
over  all,  were  of  bright  printed  India  cotton. 

In  the  Midland  Counties  of  England,  the  previous 
home  of  our  Ipswich  settlers,  the  bobbins  were  dis- 
tinctive and  decorative  in  character.  They  were  made 
of  bone  or  wood,  deftly  carved  and  often  inlaid  with 
silver  or  pewter,  and  they  had  one  feature  absolutely 
unique — ^bright  beads  hung  from  their  euds.  Ardent 
youths  carved  them  for  their  sweethearts,  and  the  his- 
tory of  the  bobbins  on  a  single  pillow  might  well  fill 
a  small  volume.  Apparently  the  Ipswich  settlers  did 
not  bring  any  bobbins  with  them  and,  in  making  new 
bobbins,  adhered  to  the  Puritan  principles  that  had 
guided  them  to  the  shores  of  New  England,  for  they 
fashioned  for  themselves  new,  simple  bobbins  of  bam- 
boo. These  w^ere  of  varying  sizes,  cut  about  five  inches 
long,  with  a  wide  groove  whittled  out  below  the  head 
to  hold  the  thread.  The  bobbins  make  a  fascinating 
clicking  sound  as  they  are  ' '  thro^vn, ' '  for,  being  hollow 
and  of  different  sizes,  they  give  forth  different  notes. 
Nowhere  else  in  the  world,  to  my  knowledge,  is  another 
bamboo  bobbin  to  be  found.  If  we  recall  that  Ipswich 
was  an  important  Colonial  seaport,  and  that  the  old 
town  is  full  of  Oriental  treasures  brought  back  by  sea 
captains,  we  can  understand  how  our  lace  makers  were 
able  to  get  bamboo.  It  doubtless  came  along  with  the 
exquisite  china,  embroideries,  carved  ivories,  and  other 
precious  articles  that  husbands  and  lovers  fetched  home 


..■;:       .f\:      -■;•,:.       ,"n« 


PAKCHMKNf   1'.\TTI:k.\S  <)U 
EE.VTIi    CENTURY;    BOBBIN 


•I'KICKING.S"   FOR   HiiHHIN   LACK.   LATE  EICIIT- 
LACE   PILLOW,    WITH    BOBBINtJ   AND   BASKET 


1.   Bobbin  Lace  made  in  Ipswich,  c.  1880;  a  Survival  of  the  Original  Craft  and  made 

by  Same  Pattern  and  Methods 
2  and  '.i.   Early  Pieces  of  Darned  Net  Lace  Made  in  Ipswich. 


EARLY  AMERICAN  LACE  323 

to  their  dear  ones  on  return  voyages  from  India  or 
Catliay  in  the  stately  square-rigged  craft  that  have  now, 
unfortunately,  all  but  disappeared  from  our  coasts. 

The  original  patterns  or  "prickings,"  as  they  were 
called,  I  have  reason  to  believe,  came  from  England. 
They  are  of  sheepskin  parchment,  such  as  is  used  for 
drum-heads.  Sometimes  a  ''pricking"  is  made  from  a 
single  strip  of  parchment,  and  again  it  is  pieced  every 
few  inches.  I  have  seen  writing  and  figures  on  pat- 
terns, showing  that  old  deeds  and  other  documents  were 
pressed  into  service  by  the  pattern  designer  or  copier. 
The  holes  indicate  the  placing  of  the  pins  that  make  the 
pattern.  The  two  rows  of  pinholes  in  the  "pricking" 
of  the  illustration  show  that  that  pattern  was  made  in 
two  widths.  Note,  also,  that  there  were  no  pins  to  hold 
the  mesh;  making  the  mesh  without  some  such  means 
of  mechanical  assistance  seems  to  the  modern  lace 
maker  a  feat  almost  impossible  of  achievement.  The 
pins  used  were  fine  lace  makers '  pins ;  at  first  they  were 
all  hand  headed. 

The  method  of  procedure  was  this — which  is  equally 
true  of  all  bobbin  lace,  whether  made  in  our  Colonial 
wilderness  or  in  the  doorway  of  Oxfordshire's  most 
ancient  cottage:  the  pillow  having  been  stuffed  and 
pounded,  a  parchment  "pricking"  was  pinned  around 
the  centre.  If  possible,  the  pattern  joined  so  that  it 
could  be  worked  continuously.  The  bobbins  were  gen- 
erally wound  by  hand,  although  there  were  reels  in 
which  a  bobbin  could  be  inserted  and  a  handle  turned  to 
facilitate  a  tedious  process.  A  slip-knot  was  tied  in  the 
threads  so  that  they  would  not  unwind  as  they  hung 
from  the  pillow,  but  could  be  lengthened  by  pulling  the 
bobbin.    The  required  number  were  tied  to  a  few  pins 


324        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

and  the  weaving  began.  The  stitch  was  simply  an  over- 
and  under-weaving,  with  extra  twists  to  form  the 
meshes.  After  every  stitch  a  pin  was  set,  the  position 
of  the  pin,  as  stated  before,  determining  the  pattern. 
An  edge  about  half  an  inch  wide  required  from  thirty 

to  fifty  bobbins. 

The  heavy  outline  thread,  which  is  characteristic 
of  'Buckinghamshire  lace,  the  kind  that  was  made  in 
Ipswich,  is  a  loosely  twisted  flax.  We  have  some  that 
was  never  used,  and  it  shows  plainly  the  irregularity 
of  a  softly  hand-spun  thread.  The  early  settlers  were 
obliged  to  spin.  In  1656,  the  records  tell  us,  ''The  select- 
men are  to  divide  their  towms  into  classes  of  five,  six, 
and  ten  and  appoint  a  class  leader,  for  the  purpose  of 
spinning.  Each  family  which  can  furnish  one  spinner 
shall  spin  thirty  weeks  in  a  year,  three  pounds  of  linen, 
cotton,  and  woollen,  monthly.  .  .  .  The  commons 
are  to  be  cleared  for  sheep.  The  seed  of  hemp  and  flax 
is  to  be  saved."  This  proves  beyond  doubt  that  they 
made  their  own  thread. 

The  lace  was  always  made  in  strips,  never  in  set 
figures.  Although  there  are  some  wide  pieces  in  exist- 
ence, most  of  it  was  narrow.  It  was  extensively  used 
on  babv  clothes  and  was  known  to  our  grandmothers  as 
"English  thread  lace."  If  you  are  fortunate  enough 
to  possess  a  garret,  seek  out  the  little  linen  shirts  which 
your  grandmother  made  for  her  babies,  and  more  than 
likely  the  hand-made  lace  which  trims  them,  if  not 
made  in  Ipswich,  is  the  same  type  of  lace,  exquisite, 
dainty,  and  yet  durable.  The  christening  dress  is  surely 
ornamented  with  lace,  and  caps,  both  for  babies  and  the 
grandmothers,  were  finished  with  more  or  less  elaborate 
edges. 

The  pins  were  used  over  and  over  again.    As  the 


EARLY  AMERICAN  LACE  325 

worker  progressed,  she  took  out  the  first  set  of  pins,  and 
the  lace  held  by  these  pins  fell  finished  into  the  little 
India  cotton  bag.  Bobbin  lace  used  commonly  to  be 
known  in  England  as  "bone  lace,"  and,  although  the 
reason  has  never  been  definitely  ascertained,  it  has  been 
suggested  that  the  use  of  small  fish-bones  to  hold  the 
pattern,  in  the  days  when  pins  were  very  dear  and 
almost  unprocurable,  may  account  for  the  name. 

Aunt  Mollie  Caldwell  collected  the  Ipswich  workers' 
lace  once  a  week  and  took  it  to  Boston  by  stage  coach ; 
in  exchange  she  brought  back  French  calico,  sugar,  tea, 
coffee,  and  sometimes,  surreptitiously,  little  packages 
of  much-desired  snuff.  It  was  not  alone  the  lace  makers 
who  were  not  paid  in  currency,  for  the  town  records, 
as  far  back  as  1640,  read  that ' '  no  persons  are  compelled 
to  pay  future  debts  in  cash,  but  in  cord,  cattle,  fish,  and 
other  articles."  Goody  Caldwell  not  only  disposed  of 
the  workers'  lace,  but  was  clever  enough  to  buy  a  bit 
from  a  peddler,  prick  off  a  pattern  from  it  and  give  it  to 
one  of  the  workers  to  reproduce. 

Felt's  Histor}^,  published  in  1834,  states  that  "Lace 
of  thread  and  silk  was  made  in  large  quantities,  and 
for  a  long  period  by  girls  and  w^omen.  .  .  .  Black 
as  well  as  white  lace  was  manufactured  of  various 
widths,  qualities,  and  prices.  The  females  of  almost 
every  family  would  pass  their  leisure  hours  in  such 
employment.  In  1790  no  less  than  41,979  yards  were 
made  here  [Ipswich]  annually." 

Bobbin  or  pillow  lace  making  is  a  most  interesting 
and  beautiful  craft,  and,  altliough  distinctly  feminine, 
at  the  time  of  Queen  Victoria's  marriage,  the  peasants 
in  the  Midlands,  both  men  and  women,  found  it  so  much 
more  profitable  than  tilling  the  fields  that  the  plough 
was  neglected  for  the  pillow.    Travellers  often  notice 


326        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

the  small  hands  of  the  Midland  County  people ;  small 
they  are,  due  to  the  fact  that,  for  generations,  tliey  have 
made  lace  and  not  done  hard  manual  labour.  From 
these  people  came  our  American  lace  makers.  A  s  chil- 
dren, they  learned  the  craft  at  four  or  five  years  of  age ; 
when  they  were  too  old  to  do  much  else,  they  were  still 
able  to  work  at  their  pillows.  Most  of  the  hand-made 
lace  produced  was  either  made  by  girls  between  child- 
hood and  the  time  they  married,  when  their  lives  be- 
came too  full  of  other  duties,  or  else  it  was  woven  by 
women  who  had  brought  up  their  families  and  found 
asrain  a  lull  in  their  heretofore  strenuous  lives.  An 
old  lace  maker  actually  loved  her  pillow;  the  bobbins 
were  as  full  of  associations  for  her  as  were  the  patterns 
she  wove.  Contrary  to  the  general  belief,  the  making 
of  pillow  lace  is  not  hard  on  the  eyes.  I  have  some 
excellent  pieces  of  work  done  by  women  over  eighty 
years  of  age. 

Let  us  go  back  a  little  that  we  may  understand  the 
sudden  appearance  of  an  entirely  different  sort  of  lace 
in  Ipswich  at  a  somewhat  later  date.  In  England,  about 
1809,  a  Mr.  Heathcoat  perfected  a  machine  that  made  a 
good  hexagonal  mesh,  so  that  a  yard  of  yard-wide  net 
could  be  woven  in  the  time  it  took  to  make  six  inches  of 
inch-wide  net  on  a  pillow.  The  pillow  lace  makers 
naturally  resented  this  innovation  keenly.  Indeed,  they 
banded  themselves  together  and  took  drastic  measures 
to  destroy  these  machines.  So  much  damage  was  actu- 
ally done  that  many  operators  were  driven  out  of 
employment  and,  between  1818  and  1822,  a  number  of 
them  emigrated  to  Ipswich,  in  Massachusetts,  to  be 
relieved  of  the  constant  annoyance  they  suffered  in 
Nottingham  and  several  other  towns  in  England.  The 
English  government,  realising  the  danger  to  British 


EARLY  AMERICAN  LACE  327 

textile  industries  should  those  skilled  emigrating  work- 
men get  machines,  put  an  excessive  export  duty  on  the 
machinery,  together  with  a  £5UU  fine  or  a  long  term  of 
imprisonment  for  the  offender.  Despite  all  this,  the 
important  parts  of  the  machinery  reached  our  shores, 
hidden,  I  have  read,  in  tubs  of  Yorkshire  butter ! 

In  a  short  time  an  excellent  quality  of  net,  both  black 
and  w^hite,  was  being  produced  in  Ipswich.  This  net 
was  the  foundation  or  background  for  the  second  and 
later  kind  of  lace,  a  lace  made  by  darning  the  pattern  in. 
The  factory  or  headquarters  for  the  lace  makers  was 
in  one  of  the  old  houses  on  High  Street,  where  many 
girls  and  women  spent  their  working  days.  More,  how- 
ever, did  the  work  in  their  own  homes. 

The  bobbin  or  pillow  lace  making  was  a  distinctly 
local  industry,  but  the  ''point  net  lace"  (''point,"  be- 
cause the  size  of  the  mesh  varied  according  to  the  size 
of  the  points  on  the  machine)  or  Ipswich  lace,  as  it  was 
called,  w^as  also  done  in  many  neighbouring  towns. 

The  net  was  stretched  on  a  large  frame ;  the  pattern 
darned  in  with  a  glass-like  thread,  and  the  centres  of 
the  flowers  and  many  other  motifs  filled  in  with  fancy 
stitches.  The  first  patterns  were  taken  from  the  bobbin 
laces,  and  they  were  very  good  copies,  too ;  later  a  new 
style  was  developed  with  more  attenuated  designs.  The 
work  is  similar  to  that  done  in  Ireland  under  the  name 
of  Limerick.  The  same  sort  is  made  in  large  quantities 
in  Italy  and  called  Sicilian  lace. 

Our  bobbin  lace  makers,  with  their  well-trained 
hands,  were  at  once  pressed  into  service  on  this  new 
work  and  seemed  quite  ready  to  drop  their  pillows  for 
the  needle.  Large  quantities  of  net  were  darned,  and 
to-day  there  is  hardly  an  old  family  in  Ips\^dch  that 
cannot  show  some  of  their  ancestors'  work.     The  net 


328        EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

adapted  itself  to  a  variety  of  shapes,  and,  besides  the 
edges  of  every  known  width  and  style,  there  are  ex- 
quisite caps  both  for  babies  and  old  ladies,  kerchiefs, 
collars  and  cuffs,  and  wedding  veils  and  gowns.  A 
straight  veil  that  hung  from  the  brim  of  the  hat  must 
have  been  fashionable,  for  I  have  been  shown  a  number 
of  these,  both  in  black  and  white  lace.  The  gowns  w^ere 
divided  into  breadths  and,  even  then,  were  a  long, 
tedious  task  to  make.  The  finishing  of  a  large  order 
was  considered  ample  excuse  for  a  village  festival ;  bed- 
spreads were  hung  from  the  window^s  and  the  lace 
makers  made  merry. 

The  darned  not  lace  is  really  beautiful,  but  incom- 
parable, in  a  craftsman's  eyes,  with  the  earlier  work  of 
the  bobbins ;  the  machine-made  net  gives  it  a  somewhat 
commonplace  aspect  that  an  entirely  hand-made  article 
lias  not.  That  infinite  skill  and  patience  are  required  to 
make  the  bobbin  lace,  one  feels  as  wells  as  knows. 

At  the  present  time  no  net  is  darned  in  Ipswich,  that 
industry  having  succumbed  to  the  entirely  machine- 
made  lace  that  one  may  buy  so  cheaply.  The  pillows, 
however,  have  never  been  totally  relegated  to  the  past. 
Fifteen  years  ago  I  found  several  women  who  still  loved 
their  pillows,  even  though  the  work  they  were  able  to 
do  was  very  inferior  to  w^hat  had  been  done  a  hundred 
years  before.  We  formed  a  little  industry  and  inter- 
ested other  workers  who  attempted  more  elaborate  de- 
signs. It  is  to  be  feared,  however,  that  the  old  lace 
requires  too  much  patience  to  gain  a  strong  foothold 
in  our  busy  American  lives.  There  are,  nevertheless, 
many  kinds  of  bobbin  lace  that  can  be  made  and  used 
in  this  everyday  world  that  do  not  demand  either  end- 
less time  or  patience  and  that  are  still  very  much  worth 
while. 


INDEX 


Accomplishments,  feminine,  15 
Adam  and  Eve,  needlework,  91 
Adam,  inlluence,  133,  141),  154,  150, 

250;    motifs,    128;    pattern,    318 
Adams,  John,  308;   Pygan,  155 
Albany,  N.  Y.,    17,  32,   117,   118 
Albarelli,  2(i 
Allegorical,  pictures,  15;  painting, 

17,  200-27 1 
AUoways,  Creek,  30;  Town,  N.  J., 

31,  32,  35 
Alloys,  pewter,  200 ;  and  processes, 

pewter,  205-208 
Alms  basons,  103 
Altar,  frontal,  81;   piece,  painted, 

204 
American,  glass,  16,  28-54 ;  origins 

of    dec.    objects,    55 ;    pewterers' 

list,  210;   Philosophical  Society, 

289;    silversmiths'   list,    172-196 
Americana,  14,  18 
Ancient  and  Honourable  Artillery 

Company,  Boston,  109 
Animals,   samplers,   93;    Blip-ware, 

229,   233, -234 
Annapolis,  119 
Anthony,  Joseph,   119 
Apparel,  wearing,  15 
Apple  corers,   140 
Application,  of  paint,  241 
Applique  patciiwork,  98 
Apprentice  system,  121 
Architectural,  amenities,  Georgian, 

312;    carving,    stone,    317,    318; 

carving,    wood,     311-310;     feat- 
ures, samplers,  91-93;  ironwork, 

57-01;   woodwork,  303 
Architects'  furniture,  312 
Architecture,  127 
Armorial    bearings,    320;    coaches, 

265 ;     hatchments,    267 ;     silver, 

164,  167 
Arts,     decorative,     14;     conditions 

favourable  to,  15;   industrial,  14 
Ashbv,  Mass.,  113 
Asheville,  N.  C,  276 
Astrologers,  Colonial,  293 
Aztecs,   20 


B 

Badger,  Thomas,  209 

Badges,   insurance,   72 

liall   feet,    150 

r>altimore,  17,  32,  119,  256 

Balusters,  242 

Balustrades,  316 

Bamper,  Loderwick,  31 

Bancker,  Adrian,    149 

Band-boxes,  240,  302 

Banding,    250 

Baptismal,  bowls,  163,  203;  certifi- 
cates,  293 

Barber,  Dr.  L.  A.,  19,  107,  217 

l>aro<iue,  inspiration,  315 

Bartram,  Ann,  318;  Gardens,  318. 
House,  318;  John,  318 

Basons,  alms,  103;  baptismal,  163 

Bavarian  dower  chest,  248 

Bayeu.x  tapestry,  91,  278 

Beach,   Col.  Miles,   114 

Heads,  32 

Beaker,    145,    146,    150,    103,    203 

Beasts,   samplers,   93 

Bed,   coverings,   98,   99 ;    hangings, 
83;   spreads,   15 

Bedstead,  canopied,  272;   pillared, 
272 

Bedminster,  Bucks,  Pa.,  289 

Bellows,  258 

Berea  College,  276 

Berlin   wool,   96 

'*  Betty  "  lamps,  62 

Birds,    glass,    29;     samplers,    93; 
slip-ware,    229,    232,    233 

Blacksmith,       silvermaker,       115; 
skill,  56 

Bleeding    cups,    136 

Blocks,  printing,  298-301 

Bloodletting,  136 

Bobbin,   322;    lace,   323-327 

Boelen,  Hendrik,    116;   Jacob,   116 

Bollos  Collection,  307 

Bolster  pillow,  for  lace,  321 

"  Bone   lace,"   325,   327 

Bolting  monopoly,  117 

Bolton,  Farm.  3"l2;   Mass.,   113 

Book-covers,  embroidered,  100 

329 


330 


INDEX 


Boston,   17,  31,  32,   103,   104,   lOG, 

108,     lOU,     110,     112-115,     120, 

122,  135,  162,  198,  1!)<),  209,  207, 

298,    321,    325;     Museum,     107, 

135,  103,  215 
Buttles,  30,  31,  33,  38;   glass,  50; 

named  for  celebrities,  33;  scent, 

38 
Boudinot,  Elias,   119 
Bowls,    157;    baptismal,    103,    164, 

203;  glass,  34,  38,  50;  milk,  34; 

silver,  157;   sugar,  130,  150-151 
Boxes,    bride,    247;    painted,    240, 

240,  259 
Brackets,  311 
Bradley,       Colonel      Aner,       114; 

Colonel  Phineas,   114 
Braintree,   Mass.,   113 
Brasier,  silver,  140 
Brass,  10,  55,  70,  71;  buttons,  36, 

39;  mounts,  251 
Brattle  Street  Church,  162,   160 
Bread  trays,   tin,   73,   76 
Brickerville,   furnace,  42,  44 
Bride    boxes,    247 
Bridgeport,  Conn.,  114 
Bright  cutting,  in  silver,  158,  159, 

164,   165 
Brinton,  Dr.  John  H.,  268 
Bristol,  Bucks,  Pa.,  312 
Britannia,    203,   206 
Brocaded  hangings,  273 
Brooklyn,   31 
Brothers  Adam,  314,  315 
Buck,   J.    H.,    Esq.,    107 
Buckinghamshire  lace,  324 
Buckles,  shoe  and  knee,  158 
Bucks,  Pa.,  246 
Buffets,    painted,    245 
Bulls'   eyes,   30 

^¥20""^"'    ''^'    "^■'    ^^"'    pottery, 
Burnett,  Governor,  111 
Burt,  Jacob,  169;  John,  122,  169- 
family,    II3  ' 

Buttons,   brass,   36,   70 


Cain   and  Abel,  67 
Cake  baskets,  142 
Calico,  298,  299 
Candelabra,    159 


Candle  boxes,  tin,  73,  74 
Candle   moulds,    73 
Candle  snuliers,  160 
Candlesticks,    70,    71,    73:    silver. 

159 
Canisters,    258 
Cans,  silver,   143,   144 
Canterbury,  Conn.,   114 
Cap    boxes,    302 
Carpenter,  Samuel,  61 
Carpets,  Colonial,  281,  282 
Carving,     10,    245;     architectural, 
315,    317;       character    of,    315; 
fetched      from      England,      315; 
interior   woodwork,    314;    heral- 
dic, 315;   stone,  316-320;   tomb- 
stones,    319;      wood,     304-316; 
with    colour,    243 
Casters,    140 
Cathay,    24 
Ceramics,   19 
Chafing  dishes,  140 
Chair,    251;    painted,    240;    seats, 

embroidered,  100 
Chalices,  101,  162 
Charleston,    17,    113 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  103 
Chasing,   165 
Chemical  glasses,  31 
Cherubs,     heads,     105,     168,     169; 

stone,  319,  320;  wooden,  315 
Cliesapeake   Bay,   256 
Cheshire,    Conn.,    114 
Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  218 
Chest,     242;      dower,      247,      248; 
Hadley,  243;   painted,  240,  245. 
246  r  ,         ,         , 

China,  12 

Chinese,  decorations,  25;  designs, 
24 ;  forms,  24 ;  prototypes,  glass, 
34 ;  maiolica,  22 ;  style,  22 

Chippendale,  309 

Chocolate  pots,   156 

Christening   dress,    324 

Christiana,  Del.,  264 

Christ  Church,  Philadelphia,  CO, 
118,  162,  167,  267 

Church  of  England,  161;  Colonial, 
315 

Clay,  20;   Henry,  bottles,  33 
Clearwater,  Honourable  A.  T.  107 


INDEX 


331 


Clock,  banjo,  254;  Eli  Terry,  254; 

faces,     252-254;     painted,     240, 

253,  254;  Willard,  254 
Cloister,    Ephrata,    2'Jl 
Coach,   painting,   20G;    Stiegel,   45 
Coasters,   140 
Coatam,  Thomas,  41 
Coats,  embroidered,  100;  of  arms, 

265 
Coflee  pots,  tin,  70;  tin  decorated, 

258;    silver,    155,    156 
Colchester,  Conn.,   114 
Coleman,  Nicholas,   119 
Collection  plates,   163 
Collectors,  14,  28 
Colonists,     Dutch,     310;     English, 

310;  German,  70,  280,  310 
Colours,  283;  combination,  Wistar 

glass,    39 ;     dower    chests,    249 ; 

glass,  33;    furniture  decoration, 

248;    maiolica,   21 
Columbia,  X.  J.,  32 
Concord,  Mass.,  113 
Conestoga  waggons,  45 
Connecticut,    16,   31,   32,    114,   218 
Constitution,  U.  S.,   119 
Contour,    silver,    126-131 
Contributionship,   72 
Cony,  John,  111,  143,  147,  148 
Cooking  utensils,   62 
Copley,  John  Singleton,  262 
Copper,   16,   71 
Corbels,   311 
Cordial  glasses,  51 
Cotton,  cloth,  299 ;   stems,  48 
Court  cupboard,   244 
Coventry,  Conn.,  32 
Coverlet,      hand-woven,     272-281; 

colours,  280;    designs,  275,  278, 

279;  materials,  273;  names,  278, 

279;    weaving,    272,    274 
Cowell,  William,  122 
Cox,    Isaac,    43 
Crafts,     American,     13;      fireside, 

272;    household,     15;     distribu- 
tion   of,    14 
Craftsmen,  European,  20 
Cream   pitchers,   silver,    151-153 
Creed,  89 

Croton-on-Hudson,   267 
Crown   glass,   50 
Cruet  stands,   140 
Cyder   tankards,    310 


Cupboards,  built-in,  245;  Jaco- 
bean,  312;    painted,  240 

Cup  plates,  glass,  33 

Cups,  with  handles,  143,  144; 
candle,    140;    standing,    146 

Cutbush,  Edward,  314 

D 

Danbury,  Conn.,  114 

"  Darned    net "    lace,   327,   328 

Date  stones,  318 

David,  256 

da  Vinci,  Leonardo,  254 

Declaration   of   Independence,    119 

Decorated   stove   plates,   65 

Decoration,  monochrome,   21 

Decorative,   arts,    14;    needlecraft, 

78-102;    painting,    appeal,    240; 

collecting,    239 ;    of   English   col- 
onists,     250-252;      glass,      255; 

household  gear,  239-260;  leather, 

258;     New     England,     242-245; 

motifs,  248;  small  articles,  252; 

technique,  248;   processes,  glass, 

52;  weaving,  272-285 
Dedham,    Mass.,    113 
Deerfield,  Mass,  113 
DeKay,  Teunis,  116 
Delaware,    161;    River,  41 
Devices,    heraldic,    303 
Dewing,  Francis,  298 
Diaper    pattern,    256 
Dishes,    glass,    38 
Dixwell,  John,  111 
Domestic  tableware,  122' 
Dower  chest,  247,  248;   Bavarian, 

248 
Dowig,  George,  151 
"Drafts,"  coTCrlet,  275,  279 
Drawn  work,   101 
Drinking  vessels,  glass,  58;  silver, 

122   et  seq. 
Drops,  architectural,  311 
Drug,     bottles,     glass,     38;     jars, 

maiolica,    26 
Duyckingk,  Evert,  30 
Dummer,  .Jeremiah,   110,   111.   113, 

114;     Richard,     111;     William, 

111 
Dunkards,    297 
Durliam,  Conn.,  114;  Furnace,  Pa., 

66 


332 


INDEX 


Diitcli,  colonists,  310;  forms,  \Vis- 
Uir  glass,  38;  iiillueuce,  paint- 
iii'T,    243;    inlluence,    silver,    130 

Djeing,    15,    285 

Dyer,    Walter   A.,    314 

Dyes,  15,  273,  280,  282-285;  in- 
gri-dients,  283,  284;  vegetable, 
2'Jl) 

Dyottville,   glassworks,   32 


E 


Eagle,   232,   233 

East  iiaddam.  Conn.,   114 

East  Hartford,  Conn.,  114 

East  India  luercliants,   34 

Ecclesiastical  silver,   120  et  seq. 

Edwards,  John,  111,  112 

Eiglit-day    clocks,    253 

Elizabeth    furnace,    Pa.,    42,    66 

Embossing,    166 

Embroidery,  pictorial,  94-98,  de- 
sign, 96-98;  colours,  96; 
materials,  95,  96;  purpose,  95, 
96 ;  personal  attire  and  domestic 
articles,    100,    101 

Empire  influence,    150 

Enamel,  21  ;    enamelling  glass,   52 

Endicott,  Govcrnour,  84,   112 

Enfield,    Conn.,    114 

England,    321,    326 

English    brick,    46;    colonists,    310 

Engraved   glass,    Stiegel,    49 

Engraving,  pewter,  211;  silver, 
164,    165 

Ephrata,  290,  297;  Choral  Book, 
292;    cloister,   293 

Essex   Institute,   84 

Ewers,  silver,   154 

F 

Fabric  printing,  298;  materials 
used,  299,  300;  processes,  300, 
301,  302 

Factories,  glass,  33 

Fairchild,  Captain  Robert,  114 

Falls  of  Schuylkill.  42 

Faneuil,  Peter,   136 

Fannington,   Conn.,   114 

Farmliouse  furniture,  250 

Fashions,  in  silver,   129 

Figureheads,    303,    310,    315 


Filleting,  166 

Fireside,  arts,  259;  Industries 
dept.,  276 

Firebacks,  iron,  63-70 

Fire   companies,    volunteer,    258 

Fire  screens,   100 

Flagons,  silver,   158,   162,   163 

Flanders,   244 

Flasks,  33;  forms,  34 

Flat  chasing,    165 

Fleetfoot,  Abigail,  84;  Miles,  84 

Fletcher,  Governour,  116 

Flint  glass,   38,  40,  50 

Flipp    straws,    146 

Flower,  jars,  27 ;  slip-decorated 
ware,    229-232 

Foliage,   silver,    168,    169 

Fontaine,   256 

Foot,  warmers,  73,  75;  scrapers, 
59,   60 

Forks,    135,    136 

"Fractur,"  16,  28G-297 ;  for  col- 
lector, 296,  297;  decline  of, 
294;  by  English  colonists,  294, 
296;  Ephrata  paintings,  291, 
292;  materials,  289;  motifs, 
287;  purpose,  289,  290;  re- 
ligious, 291,  292;  schoolmasters, 
293,    294;    secular,    294,    296 

Frishmuth  Collection,  279,  297, 
310 

Fuchsia,  230,  231 

Fulton,  Robert,  bottles,  33 

Funnels,    157 

Furnaces,    65 

Furniture,  12,  307;  home  made, 
240;  making,  16;  mounts,  70, 
71;  painting,  16,  241;  painting, 
motifs,  246 ;  painting  in  New 
York,  245-246;  New  England, 
244 


G 


Gadrooning,    151,     166 

Gardner,    Starkie,    200 

Garlands,    168,    169 

Gates,   iron,   59 

Georgian,  architectural  wood  carv- 
ing, 316;  amenities,  312;  build- 
ings, 313,  317;  houses,  312,  313, 
period,  316 

Germans,    29;    colonists,    310 


INDEX 


333 


Germantown,    Philadelphia,    36 
Ghiselin,    Cesar,     1U3,     118,     143, 
144,    162,    163,    166,    169 

Gibbon,  Grinling,  314 

Gilding,  in  glass,  255 ;  in  furni- 
ture, 251 
Girard,  Stephen,  59 
Glass,  American,  16,  28-54;  ar- 
ticles made,  51;  blowers  from 
Bristol,  44 ;  bottle  or  "  green," 
50;  character  of,  51;  compo- 
sition of,  50 ;  contours,  52 ; 
decorative  devices,  53;  decora- 
tive processes,  52 ;  decorative 
value  of,  34 ;  expert  of,  29 ; 
factories,  32,  33;  flint,  38,  50; 
gilding,  255;  houses,  16,  29,  30, 
31,  36;  at  Manheim,  29;  kinds, 
50;  making,  16,  29,  30,  36; 
Mexican,  19,  27 ;  painting  on, 
254;  shapes,  34,  51;  Stiegel, 
35,  41-50;  window,  30,  33; 
A'istar,  35-41 ;  where  to  be 
found,  53 

Glassboro,   N.   J.,   32 

Glass  House,  Company,  31;  Farm, 
31 

Glassware,  decorative,  41;    design, 
33 

Glassworks,   Stiegel,  39,  45;    Wis- 
tar,   35,   38 

Glaze,  20,  23;   liquid,  21 

Glazed    muslin,    259 

Glazing,   art  of,   20 

Globes,  "electrofying,"  39 ;  glass,  38 

Gloucester  Fox  Hunting  Club,  296 

Goblets,  silver,  146 

Goshen,   Conn.,   1 14 

Gower,    Anne,    84 

Graeme  Park,  61 

"  Green  "  glass,  character  of,  51 

Gridirons,   62 

Gros    point,    80 

Guilds,  potters',  20 

Guilford,  Conn.,  114 


Haddonfield,  N.  J.,  238 

Hadley  chest,   243,  309 

Haidt,    John    Valentine,    268,    209 

Hall,    Eliza    Calvert,    276 

Hall-mark,    109 


Halsey,   R.   T.   Haines,   Esq.,    107, 

123 
Hampton,  Conn.,   114 
llaiituck,  plate,   166;   Thomas,  137 
Hand- block   printing,    298-3U2 
liandkercliief -holders,  embroidered, 

100 
Handles,    58 
Hand,    woven    coverlets,    272-281; 

wrought    mouldings,    311 
Hart,    Charles    Henry,    Esq.,    265 
Hartford,    Conn.,    114,    115 
Harvard,    143 
Hat-boxes,  302 
Hatchments,    266,    267 
Hearth   shovels,   62 
Hebron,  Conn.,  114 
Hendricks,  Ahasuerus,  115 
Hepplewiiite.    309 ;    sideboard,    100 
Heraldic,  birds,  60;    carving,  315; 

devices,     303,     320;     ornament, 

167 
Hesselius,  Gustavus,  264,  265,  267 
Hicks,   Edward,   269,   270 
Hinges,   57,   58 
Hingliam,  Mass.,   113 
Hispano,     Mexican     maiolica,     22, 

25;  Moresque,  22 
Holland,    116;    workmen   from,   at 

Wistarberg,   36,   38 
Home,       decorated      chest,      248; 

made   furniture,   240 
Horoscopes,    293 
Horsham,    61 
Household  crafts,  15 
Hofsvard,  Thomas,   102 
Huber,    Elizabeth,    42 
Hudson  valley,  245 
Huisli,  on  samplers,  00 
Hull,    John,    103,    108-,    109,    122, 

169;    Mass.,    113 
Human   figures,   234,   247 
Hunter,  F.   W.  Esq.,  41 
Hutches,  242 


Illuminated    song   books,   290 
Indian  trade,  32 
Industrial   arts,    14 
Ink-pot,    Independence,    119 
Inscriptions,  painted,  248 
Ipswich,  Mass.,  113,  321,  324,  325, 
328;   settlers,  322 


334 


INDEX 


Iron,  10;   processes,  56;  ironwork, 
arL-hitectiiral,  57-01;  decorative, 
55-7U;    domestic    utility,    01-03 
Italians,    30;    artisans,    244 
Itinerant    weavers,    277,    279 


Jamb-stoves,  64-66 

Jamestown,    Va.,    16,    29,    30,    32, 

102 
Jampots,  34 
Jansen,    Catherine,   36 
Japanning,    244 
Jars,   24;   drug,   26 
Jefferson,   Thomas,   bottles,   33 
Jericho,  L.  I.,   269 
Jersev,    16,    31,    118,    119 
Jeweflerv,    115,    100 
Jones,     E.     Alfred,     Esq.,      120; 

Luigo,  314 


Kas,   painted,   245 

Keene,  N.  H.,  32 

Kelpius,   Magister  Johannes,   262, 

203 
Kensington,    Phila.,    32 
Keys,   58;    plates,    58 
Kierstead,    Cornelius,     117 
Killingworth,   Conn.,    114 
King's  Chapel,  Boston,  267 
Kingsessing,    Phila.,    318 
Kingston-on-Hudson,    118 
Kip,  Johannes,   116 
Knives,   136 
Knobs,   58s   70,   71 
Knockers,  59,  70 
Knotting,   101 


Laboratory,   accessories,   glass,    38 

Lace,  321-328;  Buckinghamshire, 
324;  bobbin-,  325;  "bone,"  325; 
"darned  net,"  327;  English 
thread,  324;  making,  323,  324; 
"pillow,"  321;  "point  net," 
327;    Sicilian,    327 

Lacquer,  12;  American,  244;  ex- 
ecution of,  244;  New  England, 
244 

Lafayette,    33,    255;     bottles,    33 


Lamp,   glasses,   38;    hanging,    63; 

iron,   02,   03 
Lancaster,  Pa.,  45;  County,  31,  42 
Landes,    John,    "  draft '  -book,    279 
Lanthorns,    03,    73;    tin,    74,    75 
Latchgrasps,    58 

Lead,    10;    glass,   51;    work,   71-73 
Leather,  decorative  painting,  258 
Lehigh  Co.,  Pa.,  240 
Leisler  Rebellion,  116 
Lepel-borties,    310 
LeRoux,    Bartholomew,    116,    117 
Lesser   furnishings,    252 
Lethaby,    12 
Lettering,    166,    167;    silver,    164; 

tombstones,    252 
Library  Company  of  Philadelphia, 

63,    72,    312,    313 
Limerick   lace,   327 
Lind,  Jenny,   bottles,  33 
Linen,    51,    299;     homespun,    280, 

281 
Locks,    58 
London,   265,   321;    Company,   30; 

fashions,  244 
Looms,  273 
Love   of    colour,    241 
Lownes,    119 
Loyalists,    138 

Luzerne,  Chevalier  de  la,   135 
Lyme,  Conn.,  114 

M 

Jlaces,  242 

Madeira,   157 

Mclntire,    Samuel,    313,    314 

Mahogany,   307 

Maiolica,  Mexican,  10,  19-27; 
colours,  21;  grades,  20;  in- 
gredients, 21;  painting,  21,  22; 
processes,  21;  motifs,  24;  vari- 
eties,   22 

Maiolists,   20,   25 

Manhattan,  116,  130 

Manheim,  Pa.,  35,  43,  238;  glass 
factory  products,   47 

Manor  House,  Croton-on-Hudson, 
267 

Mansfield,   Conn.,    114;    John,    103 

Mantels,  marble,  Adam,   318 

Marblehead,  Mass.,   113 

Marrow  spoons,  135 


INDEX 


335 


Masques,    1G5,    316 
Massachusetts,   10,  32,   122,  309 
]\Iatlier,   Increase,   110 
Measures,    glass,    3 
Medford,   Mass.,    113 
Mediaeval  illumination,  286 
Mennonites,     2\)1 
Mercer,  Henry  Chapman,  Esq.,  63, 

288,  296,  297 
Merchants,    East    India,    34 
Metallic  colours,  251 
^letal  work,  decorative,  16,  55-77; 

revivals,    77 
Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  27, 

77,    215,    307 
Mexican   maiolica    (v.   maiolica)  ; 

glass,    19 
Mexico,    14,    19;    Citv,   20 
IVIiddle  Colonies,  118,  317 
Middletown,  Conn.,   114 
Midland    Counties,    321,   322,   325, 

326 
Milestones,   303,    318 
Milford.  Conn.,  114 
Milk,  bowls,  glass,  34;  pans,  glass, 

50,    52 
Milton,    Mass.,    113 
Milwaukee,  76,  77;    Museum,  77 
Mint,  first  American,  29,  103,  108, 

122 
Mirrors,  257 ;   heads  painted,  240, 

254 
Mischianza    design,    234 
Monochrome    decoration,    21 
ilontgomerv  Co.,  Pa.,  246 
Moorish  influence,  22 
]\Ioravians,    269 
Mordants,  285 
Morgantown,  W.  Va.,  218 
Morris,  Robert,  250;  Mrs.  Robert, 

135 
Motifs,    decorative    painting,    246 
^Mouldings,      165;      New      England 

chest,    242 
Moulds,   bottle,    33;    butter,   310 
Mountains,    Southern,    18;    indus- 
tries,   18 
]Mount  Vernon,   255 
]Mugs,   glass,   51;    silver,   144,   145 
Mulberry  Castle,  60 
Munich,'  248 
Mural    tablets,    320 
^Museums,    18 


Musicians,  Stiegel's,  45 
Muslin,    299 
Mustard-pots,  glass,  38 
Mutual  Assurance  Company,  72 

N 

Natick,  Mass.,   113 

National   Museum,   Munich,   248 

Neinllebooks,     embroidered,     100 

Needlecraft,    decorative,    78-102 

Needlework,  professional  instruc- 
tion,  80 

New    Bedford,    Mass.,    113 

Newburyport,   Mass.,   17,   111,    113 

Nowcastle-on-Tyne,   30 

New  England,"  16,  34,  103,  241, 
309,  317,  320,  322;  furniture 
painting,    244 

New  Hampshire,  273 

New  Haven,  Conn.,   114,   115,   117 

New  Jersey,  65,  118,  119,  161,  162 

New   London,   Conn.,   114 

New    North    Church,    Boston,    111 

Newport,  R.  I.,  17,  114;  Captain 
Christopher,  29 

New    Windsor,    N.   Y.,    31 

New  York  City,  17,  30,  31,  104, 
117,  130,  309,  317;  furniture 
painting,    245-246 

Northampton    Co.,    Pa.,    246 

Norwalk,   Conn.,   114 

Norwich,   Conn.,    114 

Noyes,   John,    135 

Nutmeg  graters,  140 

0 

Oak,  306 

Old  South,  Boston,  109 

Onclebagh,  Garrett,  117 

Oriental     porcelain,     influence     on 

silver,   130 
Ornament,       machine-made,       14; 

turned  and  applied,  242 
Otis,  Major  Jonathan,  114 
Oxfordshire,  323 


Paint,   245 

Painted,    chests,    246;    boxes,    246 

Painters,    American,     ability      of, 

267  ;   occupations  of,  265,  266 


336 


INDEX 


I'ainlinjr,  allegorical,  260-2/1; 
coiuli,  205;  decorative,  16,  239- 
2(10;  on  glass  in  reverse,  2o4- 
258;  Pennsylvania  German,  246- 
250;  Maiolica,  21;  sign,  17,  265; 
underglaze,  21 
Panels,  historical,  257 
Paper  money,  Mass.,   Ill;   Conn., 

113 
Parmelee,   Captain  Samuel,  114 
Pastoral   pictures,    15 
Patch  boxes,  158,  159 
Patchwork,    bedspreads,    etc.,    15, 

98,  99 
Patens,  161 

Patterns,   coverlet,  275;   lace,   323 
Paull,  Miss  Florence  V.,  107,  163 
Peacock,   233 
Peale,      Cliarles      Willson,      262; 

Kembrandt,   262 
Peasant,      art,      Bavarian,      207; 

families,  13 
Pemberton,   Phineas,   312 
Pendants,  311 

Penn,  Honourable  John,  312;  Wil- 
liam, 103,  270 
Pennsylvania,  10,  17,  31,  35,  65, 
lis;  161,  162,  312,  317;  As- 
sembly, 119;  chests,  246;  colon- 
ists, 118;  "Dutch,"  character 
of,  215-220;  design,  240;  Ger- 
mans, 17,  218,  241,  280,  287 
Pennsylvania    Historical     yociety, 

250,  262 
Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School 
of    Industrial    Art,    19,    27,    77, 
107,  215,  217,  238,  279,  297,  310 
Pennypacker,  family,  31;  Honour- 
able Samuel  W.,"28& 
Pepper  boxes,  139 
Pepperrell,  Sir  William,  112 
Percier,   256 

Perkiomen  Creek,   31,  297 
Perpetuating   tradition,   246 
Petit  point,  80 

Pewter,  197-216;  American  char- 
acteristics, 198;  articles  made, 
202-205;  care  and  cleaning,  213, 
214;  casting  by  amateurs,  199; 
local    forms,    17;    moulds,    199; 


nature  and  varieties,  200-202; 
pattern  and  decoration,  210- 
213;  processes  and  alloys,  205- 
208;  touch  marks,  201,  205- 
209 

Pewterers,  17,  198;  Company  of 
London,  201;  list  of  American, 
216 

Pliiladelphia,  17,  30,  32,  35,  41, 
43,  59,  81,  103,  119,  120,  217, 
263,   309,   313 

Philadelphia  First  City  Troop,  296 

Phyfe,  Duncan,  309 

Pickle  jars,  glass,  38 

Pictorial    embroidery,    94-98 

Pie  markers,  310 

Piecing,   bedspreads,    15 

Pilgrim  Hall,  Plymouth,  84 

Pillow  lace,   321,   325 

Pine,  painted,  242 

Pine  tree  shillings,   122 

Pitchers,  glass,  34,  38,  48;  silver, 
153 

Pittsburgh,  32 

Plates  and  platters,   137,   138 

Plymouth,   Mass.,    84,    113 

Point  net  lace,  327 

Poles,  29 

Polychrome  decoration,   21 

Porcelain,  12;  influence  of  orien- 
tal, on  silver,  130 

Porringers,  silver,  136,  137,  150 

Portrait,  first  in  oils,  262;  on 
glass,  258 

Portemonnaies,  embroidered,  100 

Portraiture,  17,  260^271 

Potters'  guilds,  20 

Pottery,  slip-decorated,  16,  217- 
238;  tin  enamelled,  19;  grades, 
20;    sale  of,  20 

Potwine,  John,  169 

Press   cupboard,   244 

Preston,   Conn.,    114 

Prickings,   lace,   323 

Prince,  Job,  114 

Printing,   handblock,   298-302 

Providence,  R.  I.,   114 

Puebla,   16,  20,  22,  24,  26 

Punch  ladles,  156 

Punchwork,  tin,  74 

Puritan,    element,    161;    influence, 
161;    principles,    322 


INDEX 


337 


Quarry,   Colonel   Robert,    118,   1G2 

guill-holder,    115) 

Quilted,    frocks,    petticoats,    table 

covers,    tester    valances,    9'J 
Quilting,   98,   99;    bedspreads,    15; 

patterns,   99 
Quincy,   Mass.,   31 

R 

Railings,  iron,  59 
Rainwater   heads,   lead,   71,   72 
Rasch,   Anthony,    119 
Repousse  work,   ICG 
Reticules,  embroidered,    100 
Revere,   Paul,    110,    147 
Reverse  painting,  on  glass,  254 
Revival,  of  cratts,  18 
Revolutionary   War,   16,   129 
Ribbons,   168,   169 
Richardson,   119 
Richmond,   17 
Rosicrucians,  262 
Roundels,    glass,    30 
Roxburv,  Mass.,   113 
Rugs,    Colonial,    281,   282 
Rush,    William,    3U,    315 
Russia,   13 

S 

St.    Barnabas's    Church,    Pr.    Geo. 

Co.,   264 
St.    Mary's     Church,     Burlington, 

162 
St.   Peter's   Church,    Philadelphia, 

81 
St.  Thomas's  Church,  Whitemarsh, 

Pa.,  319 
Salem,  Mass.,  30,  32,  33,  84,   113, 

313,    314;    New   Jersey,    35,    40, 

80 
Salts,    138,    139;    "standing,"    138 
Salt  spoons,   135 
Samplers,  lo,  80-94;  architectural 

features,      91-93;      beasts     and 

birds,    93;    colours,    88;    design, 

88^     89;      flowers,     fruits     and 

leaves,    93,    94 ;    genesis,    82-85 ; 

human   figure,   91;    inscriptions, 

89-91;    lettering,   85;    materials, 

87,  88;   shapes,  83 
Sanderson,  Robert,  108,  122,  169 


Sand  shakers,  tin,  73,  75;  silver, 
119 

Sauce,  boats,    141;    pans,   140,   141 

Saucers,  33 

Scandinavia,   13 

Scent  bottles,  glass,  38 

Sconces,  tin,  71,  73;   silver,  159 

Scrolls,  interlacing,  22;  on  silver, 
168,    169 

Settees,   250,  251 

Sewall,  Judge,  109,  122 

Hgrafjito,  slipware,  217;  sgraffiti, 
260 

Sheraton,  309;  type  chairs,  251 

Shillings,    "  pine-tree,"    122 

Ship  "  Nancy,"  41 

Shipwrights,   carving,   310 

Shoemaker,    Joseph,    119 

Shute,  Governour,   111 

Sign  painting,   17,  266 

Silver,  12,  102-196;  articles  made, 
125,  126 ;  analogies  with  contem- 
porary furniture  and  architec- 
ture, 126-129;  chronological 
classification,  126-131;  contain- 
ing or  pouring,  148-158;  con- 
tour, 126-131;  decorative  mo- 
tifs, 166-169 ;  decorative  proc- 
esses, 164-166;  drinking,  142- 
148;  for  eating  and  small  table 
accessories,  131-142;  ecclesiasti- 
cal, 160-164;  manufacturing 
processes,  120-125;  masks,  169- 
171;  for  miscellaneous  table, 
house  and  personal  uses,  158- 
160 

Silversmiths,  apprenticeship,  121; 
character  of,  108-120;  names  of, 
172-196;   number,  12,  104 

Skippack  Creek,  297 

Slip-decorated  potterv,  16,  217- 
238;  articles,  22.-)-228;  birds, 
232,  233;  decorative  methods 
and  motifs,  228-235;  flowers, 
229-2.32;  inscriptions,  235,  236; 
materials,  221;  processes  and 
tools,  223-225;  varieties,  220, 
221 

Smeedes,  .Tan,  30 

Smith,  Horace  Wemyss,  Esq.,  268; 
Captain    John,    29 

SnuflT  lx)xes,  158,  159;  canisters, 
glass,  38 


338 


INDEX 


South,   Colonists,    IGl;    mountains 

of,  275 
Spain,  22 
bpoons,   131-130;   "coffin  headed," 

132;   "fiddle  headed,"   133 
Staining,  243 
Stalker  and   Parker,   244 
Standish,    Lora,   84;    Miles,   84 
Stamping,   silver,    10(5 
State  House,  Thila.,  119,  313,  315 
Stencilling,  251,  252 
Stiegel,    Baron,    15,    31,    35,    06; 

biographical        sketch,        41-50; 

glass,  35,  38,  39,  41-50 
Stitcherj',   15,  79 
Stockbridge,  Mass.,   113 
Stone  carving,  10,  310-320;  archi- 
tectural,  317,   318 
Stoneware,  238 
Stoughton,     Honourable    William, 

114,   143 
Stoves,  Stiegel,  42 
Stove     plates,     decorated,     03-70; 

patterns,   00-70 
Strainers,  156,  157 
Strap   work,   maiolica,   22 ;    silver, 

107,   168 
Stratford,  Conn.,  114 
Striping,   243,   251 
Stuart,  Gilbert,   119,  252 
Sugar,    bowls,    glass,    34;     silver, 

136,    150,    151;        sifters,     139; 

tongs,    142 
Sully,    262 

Superimposed  coatings,  glass,  39 
Swedish  parishes,   102 
Sword   hilts,    159 
Syng,  Philip,  elder,  118,   162,  163, 

100;   younger,    119 
Syphons,  157 

T 

Table,  equipment,  48;  manners, 
33;  painted,  240;  ware,  domes- 
tic,  122 

Talavera  ware,   19,  22,  24 

Tankards,  cyder,  310;  Hamilton, 
147;   silver,  146-148 

Tapestry  pictures,   82 

Tatooed  ornament,  maiolica,  24 

Taufschein,  293 

Taunton,  Mass.,   113 

Taylor,  John,   79 


Tea  caddies,  silver,   158;   tin,   73, 

76,  258 
Teapots,  silver,  148-150;  tin,  76 
Teaspoons,  133-135 
Temple,  N.  H.,  32 
Terry,  Eli,  clocks,  254,  257 
Textiles,    homespun,    15 
Thimbles,    158 
Tie  irons,  61 

Tiles,   Mexican,   20,   21,   23,   26 
Tin-enamelled   pottery,   19 
Tin,     boxes,     73;      painting,     16, 

work,  73-76 
Tittery,    Joshua,    30 
Tombstone,  carving,  303,  310,  320 
Tongs,  62 

Touch  marks,  pewter,  201 
Towel  covers,  80 
Tubes,  glass,  38 
Tufting,    101 
Tulips,  42,  69,  229,  230,  243,  246, 

250,  319 
Tumblers,  glass,  34;    silver,   146 
Turned  and  applied  ornament,  242 
Turner,  James,  112,  113 
Types  of  decorative  painting,  250 
Traditions,     craft,     287;      painted 

decoration,     241 ;     perpetuation, 

246,    286,    287;    in    silver    ware, 

120,    129;    silversmithing,    118 
Transfer    designs,    251 
Travs,  painted,  240,  256;      silver, 

119,  141 
Tresse,  Margaret,  "  spinstor,"  118, 

106 
Trivets,  62 

U 

Underglaze  painting,  21 
Urns,  silver,  154,   155 
Utica,   118 
Uwchlan   Twp.,   Pa.,   218 


Van  Brugh,  Carol,  116 
Van  der  Spiegel,  Jacobus,   117 
\an  Dyck,   117 
Variegation,   glass,   39 
Vases,  maiolica,  24;  glass,  38 
Vernon,   Samuel,    114 
Vilant,    William,    119 
Virginia,  119;   Company,  102' 


/  -rv^  7  7  - 


\ 


^?L 


"X. 


^ 


University  of  California 

SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

305  De  Neve  Drive  -  Parking  Lot  17  •  Box  951388 

LOS  ANGELES,  CALIFORNIA  90095-1388  (13AIN(1]WV 

Return  this  material  to  the  library  from  which  it  was  borrowed. 


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